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1 


OUR AMERICA 

THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


By JOHN A-r'LAPP 

Director Indiana Bureau of Legislative Information, Lecturer in 
Political and Social Science, Indiana University 


APPENDIX PREPARED BY 


CHARLES KETTLEBOROUGH, PH. D. 


Statistician Indiana Bureau of Legislative 
Information 


Illustrated 


INDIANAPOLIS 

THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 
1921 



Copyright 1916, 1920, 1921 
The Bobbs-Merrill Company 




OCT -b 1921 

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Printing and BIndInsr 
Bookwalter-Ball Printing Cofnpan7 
Indianapolis, Indiana 



g)CU627145 





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•i) 

INTRODUCTION 

za- 

^ There is no subject of so great importance to American 
citizenship as the study of the way we govern our affairs. 
In a country where every citizen takes a part in control¬ 
ling public affairs it must be apparent that every citizen 
should have a clear idea of the problems that confront 
him in city, state and nation. How can a citizen act in¬ 
telligently on the public problems of the day, such as 
roads, health, education, conservation and control of 
business, unless he knows at least the elementary facts 
about them ? 

Not only should the citizens be informed on the prob¬ 
lems which confront them, but they need also to be famil¬ 
iar with the plan and methods by which we govern our¬ 
selves. The citizen needs to know the actual government 
of his country in sufficient detail to enable him to vote 
with the best effect. We need to know what the officers 
whom we elect are called upon to do if we are to choose 
men fitted for the offices. Above all we need to realize 
that the government in all its forms is our government, 
subject to our control and to any changes which we 
choose to make in it. It is a most unfortunate fact that 
so many people look on government as being something 
imposed from without instead of being created and run 
by the people for their own benefit. Many people declare 
themselves to be ^‘against the government’' as though it 


INTRODUCTION 


were a virtue to oppose their own instrument maintained 
for themselves by themselves. 

We have a somewhat complicated system of govern¬ 
ment exercised through the nation, states, counties, town¬ 
ships, cities, towns and villages. Each has its part to 
perform and all together these various governments do 
the work which provides for our common needs and pro¬ 
tection. The citizen acts as a member of each—^the vil¬ 
lage, town, city, township, county, state and nation—in 
selecting officials and often in deciding public questions. 
How can he act intelligently in each unless he knows in 
a general way what the powers and functions of each of 
these units of government are? 

That we have not had such knowledge accounts for 
much of the failure of the citizens to realize the full bene¬ 
fit that should come to them from this government which 
they have jointly created and which they now maintain 
for the common benefit of all. How often has it hap¬ 
pened that candidates for city office have based their 
campaign on matters over which as city officials they 
would have no control? How often have state officials 
been chosen not with regard to the work which con¬ 
fronted the state but with reference to problems which 
are national? How often have we seen local officials 
chosen with reference to their membership in a national 
party instead of their fitness to do the particular work 
which it will be their function to do if they are elected? 
Until the citizens understand the essential facts of gov¬ 
ernment they will be subject to just such political bun¬ 
combe as is common in political campaigns. It ought to 


INTRODUCTION 


be elemental that every official should be chosen with ref¬ 
erence to the work he is to do. When the people under¬ 
stand better what the work of each official is, they will 
choose more intelligently, and better government will 
result. 

This book is written to set forth the elementary facts 
of government in this country. It begins by a statement 
of the way people live in modern society; it discusses the 
needs and wants of people for food, clothing, shelter, 
property, education, enjoyment and liberty; it shows the 
necessity for common protection against harm; it shows 
how out of these needs and wants comes the necessity for 
government. 

The benefit to be derived from such a statement is prin¬ 
cipally that we come to understand clearly that govern¬ 
ment is not something imposed on us but is rather our 
own instrument to provide common needs and protection 
subject always to our management and control. 

Having established the basis of government the book 
takes up concrete problems and shows how common needs 
for roads and streets, education, health protection, con¬ 
servation and business control are met by the govern¬ 
ments of nation, state and locality. When we discuss 
roads, health protection or other problems, the part which 
each government plays in the matter is made clear. The 
citizen is able then ta go to the proper place to get things 
done or to lay the blame when things are not done right. 
To be able to fix responsibility should be one of the fruits 
of the study of government in this way. 

When the processes of government are discussed the 


INTRODUCTION 


same method is followed. , Law making is treated as a 
unit. We need laws and we make them through Con¬ 
gress, legislatures and city councils or commissions. En¬ 
forcing laws through executive officials and interpreting 
them through courts are treated in the same way. Again 
it is possible for the citizen to go to the right place to get. 
work done if he understands generally what parts of law 
making, law enforcing and law interpreting are per¬ 
formed by the public officials of cities, states and nation. 

A conscious attempt has been made to clarify the 
processes of government so as to avoid the confusion 
which comes when nation, state and local governments 
are analyzed and studied separately. The people are more 
interested in what governments do than in the forms of 
the various governments and yet some study of form is 
essential to every citizen. 

Government is not a matter to be left to the study of 
the few. It is essentially a universal study, for upon the 
civic activity of every citizen may turn the national fate. 
Public education must take this into account and so 
organize its work that every youth will know his civic 
duties, and knowing them, will have the power to per¬ 
form them. 

The study of this subject is not, however, a matter foi 
the schools alone. It must be universal and continuous. 
There is no place to stop. The world moves. New prob¬ 
lems arise and the citizenship must keep itself progres¬ 
sively informed of the progress of the race in its efforts 
to realize the fullest justice and fair dealing. 


J. A. L. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter Page 

I A View of the Work and Needs of People ... 1 

Occupations—Food—Clothing—• Shelter—Luxuries 
—Wide Variety of Wants—Property—Liberty— 
Education—Enjoyment and Leisure—Mutual De¬ 
pendence—Working Together. 

II Supplying Common Needs .13 

General—Highways—Streets—Bridges—Railroads, 
Canals and Steamships—Cost of Transportation— 

The People’s Interest—The Post-Office—Telegraph 
and Telephone—Money—Drainage and Irrigation 
—City Needs—Disposal of Waste—Street Railways 
—Education—Libraries—Other Means of Educa¬ 
tion—Recreation—Charities. 

III Providing for Common Protection .24 

Protection of Life-^Protection Against Foreign 
Countries — Army and Navy — Police — Common 
Dangers — Preventing Disease—Sanitation and 
Health—Health in City and Country—Accidents on 
Highways—Accidents on the Streets—Street Light¬ 
ing— Fire Protection — Accidents in Factories — 
Safety Devices on Trains — Protection Against 
Fraud—Honest Weights and Measures—Banking— 
Insurance—Blue Sky Companies—Conclusion. 

IV The Nature of Government .38 

The Basis of Government—The Three Acts of Gov¬ 
ernment — Representation — The Legislative Act— 

The Executive Act—The Judicial Act—Constitution 
Making—Checking the Government—Religious and 
Civil Liberty—False Imprisonment—Free Speech— 
Freedom of Assemblage—Equal Rights—Where to 
Find Our Safeguards. 

V The People and the Government of the United 

States.49 

Facts About the People of the United States—Rural 
and City Population—Occupations—Foreign Immi¬ 
grants—Illiterates—The Importance of These Facts 
—Need of Different Forms of Government—Di¬ 
vision of Work Between States and Nation—Pow- 





CiX AFTER 


CONTENTS —Continued 


ers of the Nation—Powers of the States—Division 
of Work Between States and Local Communities 
—A Complex System—A Double-Headed Country 
—Importance of Knowing the Form of Govern¬ 
ment-Value of Local Government—Examples of a 
Proper Division of \Vork Among Locality, State 
and Nation—Constitutions. 

VI Roads and Streets. 

Modern Acts Are for Commerce—Development of 
Roads—Kinds of Roads—Paths and Trails—Dirt 
Roads—Sand Clay Roads—Gravel Roads—Mac¬ 
adam Roads—Brick and Concrete Roads—Street 
Pavements — Success Dependent upon Intelligent 
Construction — Repair and Maintenance — Control 
and Management of Roads — Local Control and 
Management—State Aid and Supervision—Plan for 
Control of Roads—National Aid—The Future Im¬ 
portance of Roads. 

VTI Health Protection. 

Health Protection Most Important—Prevention of 
Filth—Power of Health Boards to Remove Nui¬ 
sances—Prevention Better Than Cure—Necessity 
of Sewage Disposal—^Water, Milk and Food Sup¬ 
ply—Quarantine—Vaccination—Medical Inspection 
of Schools — Sanitary Measures — Destroying the 
Fly and Mosquito—Diseases Caused by Unhealthy 
Occupations—Hospitals and Asylums—The Result 
of Health Work—The Part of Nation, State and 
Locality in Health Protection. 

VIII Education. 

Education Always Supported in This Country— 
Present Extent of Education—Purposes of Educa¬ 
tion—Education Must Be Universal—Elementary 
Education—Higher Education—Vocational Educa¬ 
tion— Part-Time Schools — Extension and Corre¬ 
spondence—Public Library—Complete System Pro¬ 
vided—The Management and. Control of Education 
—State Board of Education—City Schools—County 
Superintendent—Local School Officers—Support of 
Education—The Service of the National Govern¬ 
ment to Education—Service of State and National 
Departments—Road Investigations—Health Service 
—Children’s^ Care—Agricultural Investigation—La¬ 
bor Investigation — Commercial Investigation — 
Tests and Experiments. 





CONTENTS —Continued 


Chapter 

IX Some City Problems 


Page 

107 


Growth of Cities—Problems of City Growth— 
Planning Cities—Railroads and Terminals—Pro¬ 
viding for Street Traffic—Making Cities Beautiful 
—Bill-Boards and Height of Buildings—Municipal 
Art—Housing—Playgrounds—Residence Districts 
—Markets—Garbage Removal—Sewage Disposal. 

X Some Rural Problems.123 

Reasons for Trend Away from Country—Dangers 
in Growth of Cities at Expense of the Country— 
Better Agriculture Needed—Training for Better 
Agriculture—Frauds Against Farmers: Fertilizers 
—Feeding Stuffs—Seeds—^Weed Cutting—Neces¬ 
sity for All to Act—Insect Pests and Animal Dis¬ 
eases—Marketing Crops—Cooperation—Transpor¬ 
tation—Rural Credits. 

XI Lending a Helping Hand. 134 

The People Take Care of the Unfortunate—Means 
of Caring for the Unfortunate—Care and Protec¬ 
tion of Children—Homes and Hospitals for the 
Afflicted—Care of the Sick and Injured—Tempo¬ 
rary Care and Help—Pensions—Social Insurance. 

XII Conservation.145 

The Governors’ Conference in 1908—Two Ways to 
Save — Minerals —■ Forests — Waters — Land — 

Fish and Game—Plant Diseases—Smoke. 

XIII Controlling Business.136 

Equality of Rights—Monopoly—Control of Mon¬ 
opoly—Natural Monopoly—Regulation of Natural 
Monopoly—Railroad and Public Utility Commis¬ 
sions—Labor and Capital—Collective Bargaining— 
Strikes—Profit Sharing—Arbitration and Concilia¬ 
tion—Regulation of Labor Conditions—Minimum 
Wages. 

XIV ICeeping the Records. 1^7 

Importance of Official Records—United States 
Records—State Records—Local Records—Records 
of Private Matters—Deeds and Mortgage Records 
—Needed Changes in Recording Deeds and Mort¬ 
gages—The Torrens System—Records of Incorpo¬ 
ration—Records Prevent Fraud—Records of Facts 








Chapter 


CONTENTS— Continue/ 


Page 


About the People—Birth, Death and Marriage Rec¬ 
ords—Records of Defectives—Fire Loss—Agricul¬ 
tural Facts—Manufactures—Facts About Railroads, 
Public Utilities, Banking Insurance—Facts^ About 
Education—United States Census—Apportionment 
of Representatives—Census Shows Conditions. 

XV Selecting Public Officers .178 

The Right of Suffrage—Political Parties—Nomi¬ 
nating a Governor—Convention System and Direct 
Primary—The Convention—The Direct Primary— 
Nomination of Candidates for President—The 
Principal Contests—Methods of Selecting Dele¬ 
gates—The Platform—The Campaign for Election 
—Party Committee—People Should Vote Without 
Urging — Corrupt Practises — Honest Elections 
Needed—Election Officials—How the Result Is 
Determined—Nomination and Election of Local 
Officers—Nominations and Elections by Less Than 
a Majority—Remedies for Minority Elections. 

XVI Civil Service .192 

Extent of Government Employment—The Spoils 
Method—Civil Service Reform—Examinations— 
Department Clerks—Policemen—Firemen—Highly 
Skilled and Professional Positions—The Eligible 
List—The Advantages of the Merit System—Pen¬ 
sions for Government Employees. 

XVII Discharging Officers and Employees .202 

The Task of Managing Government Employees— 
People Control Through Elected Officials—Incen¬ 
tives in Public Work—Failure to Reelect—Im¬ 
peachment—The Recall—Removal by the Governor 
—Removal of Subordinates. 

XVIII Law-Making Bodies .210 

The Process of Making Laws—Congress—Appor¬ 
tionment of Representatives—Sessions of Congress 
—Powers of Congress—The State Legislatures— 
Powers of State Legislatures—Apportionment of 
Members of ^ State Legislatures—Gerrymandering 
—City Councils or Commissions—Powers of the 
City Council or Commission—Apportionment of 
Members of City Council or Commission—Counties 
and Townships. 





CONTENTS—Continued 


Chapter Pack 

XIX How Laws Are Made. 221 


Custom and Law—Progress Makes New Laws 
Necessary—City Councils and Commissions—State 
Legislatures—Where Do Proposals for New Laws 
Come. From?—Legislative Information—Comrnit- 
tees—Form and Preparation of Bills—Introduction 
of the Bill—Action by the Committee—Procedure 
in the Houses—The Governor’s Action—The En¬ 
rolled Law—Lobbyists—Manipulation of Legisla¬ 
tive Machinery—Legislation in Congress—Proce¬ 
dure in Congress—Lobbyists in Congress—Commit¬ 
tees of Congress—Faults of Legislative Bodies May 
Be Corrected by Intelligent Criticism—The Initia¬ 
tive—The Referendum. 

XX Putting Laws into Effect—The Executive . . 239 
Law Enforcement—The Executive Department of 
the United States—The Executive Department of 
the States—The Executive Department of Cities: 

The Federal Plan—The Commission Form—The 
Business-Manager Form—Execution of Laws by 
Counties and Townships—The Problem of Execu¬ 
tion of Laws Is One of Fixing Responsibility—^The 
Work of the State and Nation Is Distinct—The 
State Controls Cities, Counties, Townships, etc.— 
System of State and National Aid. 

XXI The System of Courts.252 

Many Kinds of Courts—The City Court—The Jus¬ 
tices of Peace—The County or Circuit Court—The 
Juvenile Court—Courts of Appeal—United States 
Courts—The United States District Court—The 
United States Circuit Court of Appeals—The 
United States Supreme Court—Special United 
States Courts—Court of Claims—Court of Customs 
Appeals—The Jury. 

XXII How THE Courts Work. 262 

The Purpose of Courts—Civil Procedure—Begin¬ 
ning Suit—The Trial—Appeal to Higher Court— 

The Chance Is Given for a Fair Trial—Costs—Not 
All Cases. Come to Trial—Enforcement of De¬ 
cisions—Power of the United States Courts—Pro¬ 
cedure of United States Courts—Criminal Proce¬ 
dure—Methods of Charging a Person with Crime 
—The Grand Jury—Minor Offenses—Rights of 





Chapter 


CONTENTS—Confinw^d 


Pagb 


Persons Accused of Crime—The Trial—Criminal 
Procedure in United States Court—Declaring Laws 
Unconstitutional. 

XXIII Punishing Disobedience to Laws .277 

Enforcing Laws—Fines—Loss of Privileges—Im¬ 
prisonment—Capital Punishment—Lockups—ails— 
Reformatories and Reform Schools—Prisons and 
Penitentiaries — Penal Farms — Employment^ of 
Prisoners — Defective Prisoners — Indeterminate 
Sentence and Parole—Suspended Sentence—Pro¬ 
bation—Pardon, Reprieve and Commutation—Aid 
to Prisoners on Leaving Prisons—Local, State and 
Federal Prisons. 

XXIV Military Power .287 

Constitution Limited Power of Military—Organiza¬ 
tion of the Army—Cooperation of States and Na¬ 
tion—Commander-in-Chief—Uses cf Regular Army 
—Uses of the National Guard—Martial Law. 

XXV Relations With Other Countries. 294 

T ravel — T rade — Ambassadors and Ministers •—■ 
Consuls—Treaties and Arbitration—The Aim of 
This Country — The Monroe Doctrine — Interna¬ 
tional Law—Foreign Affairs a National Matter— 
President Appoints Foreign Representatives 
Homes for Ambassadors—Immigration—Naturali¬ 
zation. 


XXVI Territories .303 

Alaska—Hawaii—Philippines—Porto Rico—District 
of Columbia—Canal Zone—Minor Dependencies. 

XXVII Where the Money Comes From .313 

Cost of Government—Old and New Methods of 
Taxation—Sources of Government Revenue—Reve¬ 


nue of the Federal Government—The Tariff—In¬ 
ternal Revenue — Income Tax — Postal Service — 
Amount Collected by the United States—Indirect 
System—State Revenues : General Property Tax— 
Business Tax—Inheritance Tax—Poll Tax—Reve¬ 
nues of Counties and Townships — Revenues of 
Cities and Towns—Special Assessments for Streets, 
Sewers, etc.—School Revenue—Bonds—Provisions 
to Pay Bonds — Planning Expenditures: The 






Chapter 


CONTENTS —Continued 


Page 

Budget—Proposed Reforms in Taxation—The Sin¬ 
gle Tax—The Progressive Tax—Classification of 
Property—Assessing and Collecting Taxes. 


APPENDIX 

Outline of the Powers and Duties of Federal 

Officials.331 

The President—Vice-President—The Cabinet—Sec¬ 
retary of State—Secretary of Treasury—Secretary 
of War—Attorney-General—Postmaster-General— 

The Secretary of the Navy—Secretary of the In¬ 
terior—The Secretary of Agriculture—The Secre¬ 
tary of Commerce—Secretary of Labor—Interstate 
Commerce Commission—Federal Reserve Board— 

Civil Service Commission—Federal Trade Commis¬ 
sion. 

Outline of the Usual Duties of State Officials 

IN the Various States.343 

Governor — Lieutenant-Governor — State Officers, 
Boards and Commissions: Secretary of State—At¬ 
torney-General—Treasurer—Auditor or Comptrol¬ 
ler—Superintendent of Public Instruction—Board 
of Health—Public Service Commission—Fire Mar¬ 
shal—Superintendent of Insurance—Banking De¬ 
partment—Tax Commissioners—Board of Pardons 
—Board of Charities and Corrections—Highway 
Commissioner—Conservation Commission—Boards 
of Irrigation and Drainage—Fish and Garne Com¬ 
mission—Workmen’s Compensation Commissions— 
Labor Bureaus—State Board of Agriculture— 
Printing Board—Examining Boards—State Board 
of Accounts—Board of Education—Entomologist— 

State Library and Public Library Commissions. 

Outline of the Usual Duties of County Officers 

IN THE Different States .353 

The County—County Board—Sheriff—Auditor— 
Treasurer—Clerk of the Court—Registrar of Deeds 
—Surveyor—Coroner—Superintendent of Schools 
—Health Officer—Superintendent of the Poor— 
Prosecuting Attorney — Board of Equalization — 
County Assessor. . 





APPENDIX —Continued 


Page 

Outline of the Usual Duties of Township Of¬ 
ficers IN THE Different States.357 

Towns or Townships—Town Meeting—Selectmen 
and Trustees—Town Clerk—Constable—Commis¬ 
sioner or Supervisor of Highways—Assessor—Jus¬ 
tice of the Peace. 

Declaration of Independence.359 

Constitution of the United States ..... 364 

Articles in Amendments' of the Constitution . . 377 

Where to Write for Further Information . . . 385 

Bibliography.. 389 

Index . 395 








OUR AMERICA 
THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 






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OUR AMERICA 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 

CHAPTER I 

A VIEW OF 

THE WORK AND NEEDS OF PEOPLE 

All able-bodied men and women are engaged in 
work of some sort. There are farmers, manufac¬ 
turers, grocers, lawyers, doctors, laborers, home¬ 
makers. There are thousands of occupations in 
which people engage. Each person does his part and 
the means of living are thus supplied to all people. 
The division of labor, as it is called, whereby each 
does a part of the whole, has resulted in the produc¬ 
tion for common use of many things which formerly 
even kings could not obtain. 

Occupations.—But the first question which one 
asks is: Why work at all? Why do men work day 
after day at hard tasks? The answer is simple. It 
is that men have needs and wants which they seek 
to satisfy. By their labor they produce goods which 
they may use or exchange for other goods which 
they want. The farmer produces crops to furnish 
his foodstuffs. What he does not use is exchanged 
for other materials. The manufacturer takes the 
1 



2 


OUR AMERICA 


products of mine, forest and farm and fashions arti¬ 
cles for use or enjoyment. The storekeeper buys 
and sells the goods of others and serves as a means 
of exchange between producer and consumer. The 
people engaged in transportation carry goods from 
all parts of the world to the people who want them. 
The laborer gives his effort in all kinds of work 
in exchange for goods or for money with which to 
buy goods. The home-maker uses products in such 
a way as to get the greatest amount of good from 
them. 

To satisfy the needs and wants of people there 
must be constant exchange of goods, since one person 
produces only a mere fraction of what he uses and 
must depend upon exchanging his labor or his surplus 
products for things which others produce. 

Food.—The first object of work is to obtain food 
upon which to live. The savage went out to hunt 
or to fish and lived on what he killed or on things 
which grew wild; the early settlers cultivated the 
soil and obtained their food from its products and 
from fishing and hunting; people living in the remote 
sections to-day raise from the soil the larger part 
of their food; millions of farmers supply themselves 
from the farm with the more important articles of 
food; and even the city dwellers raise a portion of 
their food from the cultivation of small garden plats. 

But if we consider the articles of food on our 
breakfast table we shall readily see the extent to 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


3 


which we exchange goods in order to satisfy our 
every-day wants. The coffee may have been produced 
in Java; grapefruit and oranges in Florida; sugar 
in Cuba; salt in Syracuse; pepper in the islands of 
the Pacific; meat, even for the farmer’s table, may 
have been obtained in Chicago from cattle born in 
Missouri, raised in Iowa, and fattened in Indiana; 
while bread may have been produced from flour man¬ 
ufactured in Minneapolis from wheat raised in the Ca¬ 
nadian Northwest. Thousands of persons contribute 
to the production, preparation and distribution of the 
materials out of which an ordinary breakfast is made. 

We are dependent, therefore, upon the smooth 
working of the system of exchanging goods to get 
the things on which to live, at a price which we are 
able to pay. If for any reason the food supply were 
cut off for a week, severe distress would be caused. 
The stoppage of business by wars, floods, or strikes 
causes a quick rise in price of the necessaries of life. 
Of course the effect is felt most keenly in the larger 
cities where practically no food is produced, and that 
effect is quickest in respect to perishable articles such 
as milk, fruits and vegetables. A brief stoppage of 
the milk supply of a large city will bring suffer¬ 
ing to thousands of babies and perhaps death to 
many. The people living in the country do not suffer 
distress or want so quickly by the disturbance of the 
supply of food, because they produce some of the 
most substantial parts of their food. They soon 


4 


OUR AMERICA 


begin, however, to feel the pinch of high prices and 
are deprived of many of their ordinary articles of 
food. 

Thus, unless the machinery of production, prepara¬ 
tion and distribution of food works without interrup¬ 
tion, the results are quickly felt by every person— 
at once and keenly in the cities and without much 
delay among the rural population. So great is our 
dependence upon one another. 

Clothing.—Our next prime need is for clothing, 
and again we may say that we draw upon the whole 
earth for materials. If it takes the labor of a thou¬ 
sand persons to supply a breakfast it takes many 
times that number to supply the materials for cloth¬ 
ing and to fashion materials into articles for wear. 

Let us take an inventory of the principal materials 
used in making our clothing. Cotton, which forms 
so large a part, may have been raised in the South; 
spun and woven into cloth in New England or in 
Europe; made into garments by the tailor, dress¬ 
maker or housewife or by hundreds of workers in 
factories and shops. Wool is raised on the ranches 
of the West; likewise, perhaps, spun and woven in 
distant places; and made into articles for wear in 
many parts of the world. 

The same dependence upon many hands in many 
countries is found in the case of material such as silk, 
linen, leather, straw and plumes. In some cases, 
hundreds of persons are employed upon a single 
article. There are, for example, more than two hun- 





Manufacturing Clothing 





















































Manufacturing- Food 























THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


5 


dred and sixty separate operations in making a shoe 
in a shoe factory. 

It is true that men might make their own articles 
of wear. Primitive people and our early settlers 
used mostly home-made articles. The last genera¬ 
tion remembers well the spinning-wheel and the 
home-knit garments. Even home-made shoes and 
hats were common. But to-day nearly every one de¬ 
pends upon exchanging the goods he produces for 
the necessary articles of dress. So, in the case of 
dress as in the case of food, we are dependent upon 
one another. The consequences of failure to get the 
goods to the person who uses them are, however, not 
so serious in the case of dress as in the case of food. 

Shelter.—The third great need to supply is that of 
shelter and h^re again the statement may be made 
that we depend upon many people and many coun¬ 
tries to enable us to live comfortably. Building ma¬ 
terials are of many varieties and their supply depends 
upon the work of thousands of men in the forests, 
mills, mines and factories. 

The pioneer was independent in this respect. He 
built his hut from the trees of the forest and plastered 
the holes with mud. Scarcely anything had to be ob¬ 
tained from exchanging goods with others. Yet the 
pioneer generally exchanged labor in order to have 
aid in putting the heavy timbers together. 

The pioneer was independent in the matter of fuel. 
He cut his own logs and lighted the fire by striking 
the flint. We are to-day entirely dependent upon 


6 


OUR AMERICA 


others for this necessity for man’s comfort. In 
1902 when the coal strike was on in the hard coal 
fields, that kind of coal in some places rose to twenty- 
eight dollars a ton. Over large sections where the 
people depended upon hard coal for fuel, there was 
actual suffering and winter was approaching. Ex¬ 
treme measures had to be taken to settle the strike, 
so great was the dependence of the people upon the 
mines to supply their needs for fuel. In the cities 
the people have to depend upon others not only for 
necessities but also for such conveniences as gas for 
heating, cooking and lighting and for electricity and 
other forms of light. 

Luxuries.—Thus far we have considered the abso¬ 
lute necessities of life, namely, food, clothing and 
shelter. The demands for these necessities may not 
be ignored. They can not be reduced below a cer¬ 
tain point without danger to our lives. There are, 
however, certain other demands which men strive to 
meet which are not absolute necessities but which 
are great conveniences. For example, we may men¬ 
tion the finer and more expensive articles of food, 
clothing and shelter which are not necessary to sus¬ 
tain life but which people, nevertheless, will have. 
For instance, sugar is not necessary to sustain life, 
yet it is counted a necessity; silk is not essential for 
dress yet people who have the means will buy it; fine 
furniture may not be necessary to the home yet it 
will be purchased by every one who can afford it. 

Wide Variety of Wants.—These facts account for 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


7 


the wide range of wants which keep millions of work¬ 
ers in thousands of occupations busy. No one is 
satisfied with the bare necessaries of life and each 
having his own particular wants, makes a wide range 
of demand. The discoveries of science and the 
growth of invention are constantly adding new goods 
which people want as soon as they know their merits. 
This in turn causes new occupations to arise. The 
people of to-day earn their living in hundreds of ways 
unknown to the past generation, and the people of 
the next generation will add many other occupations 
now unknown. 

Property.—As a result of labor and exchange men 
acquire the means of living, shelter and enjoyment. 
The goods which they secure are their own private 
property. Many people secure more goods than they 
actually use and the accumulations take many forms. 
All that a person acquires belongs to him in our sys¬ 
tem of society. No man’s property may be taken 
except on terms which are just and which protect the 
owner. Every man is protected in his property 
rights and those rights extend not only to the goods 
which he owns but also to his labor. The fruits of a 
man’s labor as well as his property belong to him. 

Liberty.—Freedom to do as one pleases so long as 
one does not interfere with others is a sacred right 
earned in the struggle for existence. Liberty and 
the right to enjoy one’s self as one pleases have de¬ 
veloped the desire for the security of freedom. So 
men strive hard to get and to maintain freedom. 


8 


OUR AMERICA 


Education.—Out of the many problems of life 
comes the need for knowledge. People must know 
how to live under new conditions. They must know 
how to adapt themselves to new ways of living. They 
must be able to protect their bodies from accident and 
disease. They must learn to do some work whereby 
they may earn a living. They must have knowledge 
to prepare them for the duties of a home. They 
must be guided in their conduct toward their fellow 
men because a man’s success depends upon playing 
fairly with his fellows. 

Knowledge opens up new outlooks and creates* the 
desire for more knowledge. So we find that the 
more people are educated the greater will be the de¬ 
mand for education. Education is therefore supplied 
all through life by means of kindergartens, elemen¬ 
tary schools, high schools, colleges, trade schools, pro¬ 
fessional schools, extension and correspondence 
work, and free libraries. 

Enjoyment and Leisure.—The division of labor 
about which we have been speaking has made it pos¬ 
sible for men to supply their wants and still have 
some leisure time to enjoy the fruits of their work. 
Leisure has resulted in the creation of new wants be¬ 
cause men seek pleasures and some one thereby is 
called upon to do the work required to furnish enjoy¬ 
ments. When men have time to be interested in 
paintings and sculpture, there is a demand for the 
work of artists and sculptors. 

Leisure for reading creates a demand for books 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


9 


and periodicals. The poet and the author, and 
writers of all kinds, thus find a chance to sell their 
writings. Love of music gives a livelihood to the 
musician and creates a demand for musical instru¬ 
ments. The desire for amusement creates real 
demands. Baseball and other outdoor sports, 
gymnasiums and bowling alleys, the theaters, moving- 
picture shows and the circus, travel and excursions 
are only a few of the many means of satisfying the 
wants for amusements. 

Mutual Dependence.—Thus, to supply the needs 
and wants of each person in these days requires the 
services of many thousands of people. Each must 
depend upon others and all are directly interested to 
see that the processes by which their wants are sup¬ 
plied are working smoothly. 

When we look about us and view the work of 
people we must be impressed with the extent and 
variety of relations which we all have with our fel¬ 
low men. Our lives, health, daily labor and enjoy¬ 
ments are dependent upon the work of others. It is 
true that a person could exist all alone, but such a 
person could not enjoy the benefits of civilized life. 
A man might raise his own food or hunt or fish for it 
with crude implements of his own manufacture; he 
might make his own clothes, build his own hut and 
actually live. But such a condition is almost solely 
a matter of fiction in these times. Nowhere do any 
large number of people live alone. Even the famous 
story of Robinson Crusoe does not show complete 


10 


OUR AMERICA 


independence. Much that that famous person did, 
he was enabled to do because he had the work of 
others in the tools and materials from the stranded 
ship. 

Working Together.—Out of the close relations 
which we have with our fellow men, there arises the 
necessity for people to work together. In this way, 
they do the things which all want done for the com¬ 
mon benefit. Likewise, they lay down rules to pro¬ 
tect the rights of each. Men would do many things 
together even if they were not compelled for their 
own benefit to do so. We see proof of this state¬ 
ment in the growth of lodges, clubs, fraternities and 
other organizations. People like to associate with 
their fellows: they subject themselves voluntarily to 
the rules of clubs, lodges and fraternities and abide 
by them. The spirit of fellowship is the basis of 
much of the pleasure of life. But people do not sur¬ 
render voluntarily for mere fellowship’s sake any rights 
which they can not take back. A man may withdraw 
from a club. His life, property and liberty are not 
affected. In the more serious matters, however, life, 
property and liberty are at stake, and government is 
organized to promote and protect the interests of all. 
Government is not a voluntary organization, but 
brings all within its scope under its control. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Make a list of the principal articles of food used in 
your community and find the source of supply. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


11 


Do the same for the principal articles of clothing. 

W here are the main products of your community sent 
for market? 

Trace any given articles about which you know from 
producer to consumer showing transportation and selling. 

Where does your community get its supply of milk? 
Meat? Vegetables? Fuel? 

What would happen in your community if the supply 
of food from outside were cut off for ten days ? 

Have you had any experience when there was a short¬ 
age of important products? How was the condition 
met? 

What different occupations are followed by the men 
and women whom you know? 

Show how each occupation is necessary to the general 
welfare. 

Make a list of food necessities and also a list of luxuries 
in common use. 

For what necessities does your community depend upon 
outside supply? 

What necessities are produced in your community? 

If the supply of outside products should be cut off, what 
articles in common use would you have to get along with¬ 
out? 

What is the meaning of the term liberty? 

Give all the reasons you can why the people must depend 
upon one another and work together. 

What is the meaning of the term “division of labor”? 

What are the advantages of division of labor? 

What objections can you raise to the system of divi¬ 
sion of labor? 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the work of the farmer is more impor¬ 
tant than that of the merchant. (Also compare impor¬ 
tance of other occupations.) 

Resolved that people in earlier times with fewer wants 


12 


OUR AMERICA 


were better off than the people of to-day with greatly 
increased wants. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Smith, Wealth of Nations. 

Chaps. I-II-III. 

(This was the earliest statement of the idea of 
division of labor.) 

The United States Department of Commerce collects 
information about commerce of the country, showing 
what we buy from foreign countries and what we 
sell to them. This is published in the Statistical 
Abstract which may be obtained free. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State University, Heads of the Departments of Eco¬ 
nomics, Political Science or Sociology, asking specific 
questions. 


CHAPTER II 


SUPPLYING COMMON NEEDS 

We have taken a view of the way men live and 
labor and of the dependence of each upon all. We 
have seen how each person or group of persons pro¬ 
duces certain things and by a system of exchanging 
goods, secures from many other people the things 
upon which to live. 

General.—It is a matter of great concern to all 
people, therefore, that the exchange of goods be made 
as easy as possible. If one man produces wheat 
and nothing else, he must exchange part of it for 
other articles of food and for clothing and shelter. 
The man who produces shoes must exchange them 
for things to eat and other things to wear. 

Highways.—The first need is to have means of 
communicating and of transporting the articles which 
are to be exchanged. There must be highways over 
which to carry goods. All people have a common 
interest in the highways and all should act together 
to make and maintain them. 

In many parts of the country the plan of building 
roads for profit was tried. Private parties bought a 
rights-of-way and built roads expecting profit from 
a small fee—a toll—charged for each vehicle using 

13 


14 


OUR AMERICA 


the road. Almost everywhere to-day, however, these 
roads have been changed into public roads because 
they did not pay the private owners and because the 
increasing importance of roads made the people see 
that roads must be free to all. To-day, practically 
all the roads in this country are public highways. 
No one would think of having the roads managed 
in any other way, because roads make possible an 
easy exchange of the means of living. Good roads 
make exchanges still easier and so all people are 
interested in having roads good enough to bring the 
cost and labor of getting things to market down to 
the lowest possible amount. 

Streets.—Streets may be considered the same as 
roads. They are merely city or town roads, im¬ 
proved to meet the requirements of heavier traffic. 
They are the first necessity of a city and the welfare 
of each person is dependent upon keeping them free 
and open. A matter of such great importance could 
not be left in private hands. It would be intolerable 
to have streets shut off by toll gates. As in the case 
of roads and bridges, they must be free for if they 
are not, that much burden is added to the people in 
exchanging goods and thereby to the cost of living. 

Bridges.—Likewise with bridges. They are a part 
of the road and if they are not free, the toll charged 
adds to the expense of carrying goods. We must 
have bridges for the cost of ferrying or the dangers 
of fording would add to the cost of transportation. 
So bridges are treated almost everywhere in this 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


15 


country as a part of the road and are made and kept 
up by the people. There are some examples of 
bridges owned by companies where a toll is charged 
but these are rapidly being changed into public 
bridges and in nearly all parts of the country they are 
now wholly unknown. 

Railroads, Canals and Steamships.—Roads, streets 
and bridges are largely for community use. They 
are the smaller arteries while canals, railroads and 
waterways are the main arteries for exchanging 
goods. If a township or a county supplied its own 
needs and offered a market for all it produced, the 
people of that township or county would have little 
interest in canals and railroads—the main arteries. 
They would.make their exchange of goods over the 
highways and their wants would be satisfied. But 
we have seen that all—even in the remote sections— 
depend upon many parts of the world for the things 
which they live upon and enjoy. They likewise send 
their products to many parts of the world. Like the 
little rivulet which finds its way into the creek and 
thence into the river tributary and finally into the 
main stream and the ocean, the products of men find 
their way over the local highways, on the main roads 
to the shipping points, thence by railroads or canals 
to the great centers or to the wharves of steamships 
which in turn carry them to other countries. These 
ships bring back other products which are carried by 
railroads and canals to country centers and by 
highway to the door of the consumer. Altogether 


16 


OUR AMERICA 


the highways, canals, railroads and steamships make 
a complete system of travel and transport for the 
whole world and every person in the world is de¬ 
pendent upon them. 

Cost of Transportation.—Suppose that the roads 
of this country were so bad that it would cost twenty- 
five cents more a bushel to get wheat to the railroad; 
and suppose that toll roads and bridges took ten cents 
a bushel; and that the railroads or canals took twice 
as much for carrying as at present; it is clear that 
the person who bought wheat would have to pay 
considerably more for it. So, also, the product which 
the wheat seller buys would cost more. In the inter¬ 
est of all, it is necessary, therefore, to make the means 
of transportation the very best in order to keep the 
cost as low as possible. 

The People’s Interest.—The people keep down 
the cost of transportation in the case of highways 
by making them free for all and by expending large 
sums to make better roads and to keep them repaired. 
The states own the canals and boatmen run their 
own boats upon them usually paying a small toll. 
The United States built the Panama Canal for the 
purpose of making it easier to trade with other coun¬ 
tries. 

The people also helped to build the railroads. They 
gave large sums of money and millions of acres of 
land to companies to build railroads. When rail¬ 
roads charged too much for their services, the people 
made them reduce rates; when they failed to give 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


17 


good service, the people made them put on more 
trains and run them better. This was in line with 
the idea that the welfare of the people depended upon 
making it possible to exchange goods at the least 
cost and with the least delay and loss. During the 
world war the experiment of complete government 
control of railroads was tried. After the war was 
over they were turned back by the United States to 
private hands. 

Steamships have been built for private profit, but 
again if it should happen that an unfair charge were 
made whereby trade would be crippled, the people 
would probably try first to regulate the price charged, 
and if that failed they would finally buy or build 
ships and go into the business. 

The Post-Office.—The people have in many other 
ways arranged to make exchange easier. The post- 
office was established and run at cost, and often be¬ 
low, to help the exchange of goods. It is a simple 
fact that without the post-office, a heavy burden 
would be put upon trade, for a man would have no 
means of knowing where to sell his goods except by 
personal trips which would involve heavy expense 
and long delays. Too important to trust to private 
hands, the people established the post-office, built 
post roads, established city and rural delivery and 
provided for the sending of money by mail. 

Telegraph and Telephone.—With the invention of 
the telegraph and telephone and their wide use in the 
service of business, the people have taken an active 


18 


OUR AMERICA 


hand in making them aid in exchange. They, also, 
were run by the government while we were at war 
with Germany but were quickly returned to their 
owners after the war. 

Money.—There could be little trading if it were 
not for money. If a person who had a bushel of 
wheat wished to buy a pair of shoes he would have 
to find the party who had shoes and wanted wheat. 
Trading would necessarily be limited under such 
conditions. To overcome that difficulty, the people 
build mints and coin money. Money serves as a 
medium of exchange so that the person who has 
wheat can sell it and take the money to the man with 
shoes and buy what he wants. Thus exchange is 
made easier. 

Drainage and Irrigation.—There are many things 
of common benefit which men do together which 
could not be done single-handed. 

Drainage is one of these operations for common 
benefit. It may be surprising to learn that in 1915 
there were seventy-five million acres of land in the 
United States which were a useless swamp and that 
there were one hundred fifty million acres which did 
not produce more than twenty per cent, of what they 
should produce because they were not properly 
drained. 

Now in most cases, it would be useless for one 
farm owner to try to drain his swamp land. If he did, 
he would cause trouble by running the water off on 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


19 


his neighbor’s land. It is necessary that the people of 
the area to be drained cooperate and make one ditch 
which will drain the land of all. So the persons af¬ 
fected build and maintain the necessary ditches, drains 
and works. 

So, also, with irrigation. It would be out of the 
question for one owner to construct the necessary 
works to bring water long distances and provide irri¬ 
gation canals. All, therefore, work together and 
build one system for the service of all. 

City Needs.—Where large numbers of persons live 
close together as they do in cities, extra needs arise 
for which the whole community must provide. The 
farmer drills his own well and therefore has his own 
water supply. That is impossible in large cities be¬ 
cause of the danger to health. The cities therefore 
provide systems of water supply, sometimes bringing 
water hundreds of miles. 

Disposal of Waste.—The problem of disposing of 
waste becomes important in a city of any consider¬ 
able size. It is necessary to provide a sewer system 
and this can not be done by a few persons. Nothing 
short of the whole city can successfully undertake 
such works. It is too important to be left to private 
action, so the city builds the sewerage system and 
provides for the disposal of garbage. 

Street Railways.—Another problem which con¬ 
fronts the people of a city is that of providing street 
railways. If the inhabitants are not all to be huddled 
together in a few down-town squares, means must 


20 


OUR AMERICA 


be furnished to carry them from their homes to their 
work and back. It is just as much the duty of the 
city to provide such means as it is to provide streets 
and alleys. In each case, the welfare of all depends 
upon it. 

In the case of street railways as in the case of rail¬ 
roads, private enterprise has found it profitable to un¬ 
dertake the work. It is of too great importance, how¬ 
ever, to leave the matter entirely to the will of a few 
people who seek profit Rates should be reasonable 
and service as good as possible. The public is regu¬ 
lating street railways to secure good service at a 
fair rate. A few cities operate their own lines. 

Education.-—We come now to a group of services 
which the people perform for themselves and which 
are not concerned with the necessities of life. When 
man has provided for his actual living, he turns his 
attention to the means of education and enjoyment. 
The first thing he builds for the use of all is the 
school. In fact, the school has often preceded many 
of the necessities. We are now past the early stages 
in all parts of this country, and the schools, like the 
highways, are everywhere. It takes an army of 
six hundred thousand teachers to conduct the schools, 
while probably an equal number help to manage school 
affairs. Everywhere in this country the elementary 
and high schools are provided at public expense. Vo¬ 
cational schools are quite commonly provided. Col- 
leg’es and universities are built and run by the people 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


21 


and it may be said that education from the kindergar¬ 
ten to the university is provided by the common effort 
of all for the benefit of each. 

Libraries.—Second in importance to the schools 
come libraries. These are provided by the people to 
give information, in order to continue the process of 
education begun in the schools, and to develop among 
the people a taste for better reading. 

Other Means of Education.—In many cities there 
are also provided art galleries 'where the artistic edu¬ 
cation of the people is broadened. Cities and com¬ 
munities also build monuments and works of art 
upon the streets, in the parks, and in and about public 
buildings. 

Recreation.—Parks, playgrounds, gymnasiums, 
bathing beaches, skating ponds and other play places 
are generally provided by progressive cities. Even 
moving-picture shows and theaters are in some places 
owned and managed by the people for their common 
enjoyment. 

Charities.—The recognition of our duty toward 
our fellows brought about by our dependence on one 
another, our natural instincts of neighborliness and 
the broadening influence of education, have caused 
us to provide for the care of the unfortunate. Cities 
and states provide hospitals for the care of the sick 
and injured; asylums for the insane; homes for the 
aged and the poor; orphan homes and homes for 
old soldiers and their dependent children. These 


22 


OUR AMERICA 


institutions are the helping hand for those who for 
any reason need special assistance in supplying the 
necessities of life. 

The above statements do not mention all of the 
things in which the people engage to supply needs 
and enjoyments, but they serve to show the impor¬ 
tance of the subject with which we are dealing. To 
provide all of these things requires vast sums of 
money and great numbers of men and women. The 
doing of these things forms a part of the process we 
call government. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Are there any toll roads or bridges in your community? 
Ask the older people of the community if they remember 
any toll roads or bridges. 

Give all of the reasons you can for free roads, streets, 
bridges and other means of transportation. 

What is the relation between bad roads and the cost 
of living? 

Make a list of all of the things which the people in 
your community own for common use. 

Show how money aids exchange. Would it be possible 
to have money made by private individuals or compa¬ 
nies? 

Point out the similarity between the telegraph and tele¬ 
phone and the post-office as a means of exchange. 

What are the principal advantages of having the post- 
office entirely in the hands of the people? 

What ^reasons can you give why the people should or 
should not own the telegraphs and telephones? 

Do the farm lands of your community need draining? 
Has any drainage work been done? Visit any such work 
and explain how it is done. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


25 


Which is the more important common need, roads or 
schools? 

What products are hauled over the highways to market 
from your community? WHat is the average size of loads 
which it is possible to haul to market? If the roads were 
improved to what extent could the size of the loads be 
increased? How much would each farmer save in time if 
such improvements were made? 

Do the arguments for ownership of roads and streets 
apply also to street railways and railroads? ^ 

To what extent would trade be carried on if people had 
no money but had to depend upon barter of goods? 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that all the public means of transportation 
should be owned by the people. 

Resolved that the people who use the highways should 
pay a tax for the privilege. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTFIER 
INFORMATION 

Later chapters give specific information about sources 
from which to obtain information on the subjects 
discussed. 


CHAPTER III 


PROVIDING FOR COMMON PROTECTION 

In early times the principal object for which people 
worked together was the protection of life. Often 
this protection was against savages or wild beasts, 
but the most important need in modern times has 
been against hostile tribes or nations. 

Protection of Life.—The people in the early times 
lived in villages surrounded by walls or stockades 
and went out to work their fields. They sometimes 
built forts to which they could go in times of danger 
and all joined forces against any common enemy. 
We have passed beyond some of the dangers which 
beset our forefathers. Scarcely anywhere in this 
country is there need of stockaded towns or of forti¬ 
fied houses to protect the people from savages or 
wild beasts or from tribes or bandits. Except for 
some of the remote regions of the West, the country 
has become a nation of peaceful inhabitants. 

Protection Against Foreign Countries.—There are 
no lawless bands to be feared, but there is the danger 
from other nations, who may seek to attack our 
country, and in doing so, deprive our people of life, 
liberty and property. They may refuse to give us 
our just rights in the trade with other countries and 
24 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


2-S 


compel us, in self-respect, to maintain them. We 
know that wars are likely to occur and that every 
nation must protect itself. When one nation is armed 
and ready to fight, every other nation must fear it 
and be prepared. Just as the tribes had to be ready 
to fight other tribes when they were attacked, each 
nation, however peaceful its people may be, must be 
prepared against any powerful nation which may be¬ 
come its enemy. 

Army and Navy.—The people, therefore, need an 
army and a navy and since these things are for the 
common defense, they should be supported by all 
the people. One thing should always be kept in 
mind, namely, that in this country an army and navy 
are for defense only—never to make war upon others. 
Our army and navy should be large enough to defend 
the country against the strongest enemy that may 
attack it. Because of the fortunate position of the 
United States we need not maintain so large a force 
as the nations of Europe, which have hostile coun¬ 
tries at their very doors. 

There are times also when, even in this peaceful 
country, serious disorders take place causing loss of 
life and property. Mobs of men excited by some 
event may seek to wreak vengeance, or, to attain a 
certain object, may interfere with the process of busi¬ 
ness, and cause the whole community to suffer loss. 
They may even go further and attempt to break up 
the nation and form a separate one as in the Civil 
War from 1861 to 1865. It is the duty of all of the 


26 


OUR AMERICA 


people to aid in maintaining safety and permanent 
peace by having an army prepared to prevent any 
such disorders. 

Police.—The army can be used for protection only 
in matters of great importance. It can not be used 
to catch a burglar or a horse thief or to prevent 
ordinary crimes. 

For protection against such common dangers as 
these the people organize police and detective forces 
in cities to prevent crime and catch criminals. Out- 
side the cities they provide sheriffs, constables and 
deputies for the same purpose. The states often 
maintain detective forces and state police to ferret out 
and prevent crime. The people of the nation, acting 
as a whole, have marshals and their deputies to 
enforce the laws of the nation. They have also a 
detective bureau, known as the Secret Service, to 
prevent crime and to bring criminals to justice. 

Common Dangers.—We have thus far in this chap¬ 
ter spoken of the protection of the people against oth¬ 
er nations and against violence and crime. Let us 
now consider those regulations which protect the peo¬ 
ple from the dangers which arise from the close rela¬ 
tions they have with their fellow men. 

We have seen how closely men work together and 
how they are dependent upon one another for the 
things upon which to live. In the regular course of 
events people have crowded together in cities and 
towns. Thousands may live in a single city block. 
The streets swarm with people and vehicles. Under 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


27 


such conditions dangers of disease and accident arise 
and the people acting together try to lessen these 
dangers by regulations. They do this because un¬ 
healthy or crippled people are a loss to all, and every 
disease and accident that can be prevented should 
be. 

Preventing Disease.—Let us see what are some of 
these regulations. One of the most important is the 
prevention of the spread of disease. This is done 
by means of quarantine and disinfection. We are 
all familiar with these processes. Almost everywhere, 
in country and city alike, contagious diseases are 
quarantined and the patients are kept in their houses. 
In case of dangerous diseases, a strict quarantine is 
kept up against all persons in the place. After the 
disease has passed, a complete fumigation follows 
and the disease is thus stamped out. Because of the 
dangers of spreading disease in schools, many places 
require vaccination against smallpox. A great many 
schools keep doctors and nurses to discover and pre¬ 
vent the spread of diseases among school children. 

Sanitation and Health.—A second important regu¬ 
lation is directed against unhealthy conditions which 
affect others. Unhealthy conditions are generally 
prohibited. A man can not leave decaying material 
or filth, or permit unsanitary conditions on his own 
premises, if it affects others. We recognize that 
people ought not to be allowed to live in filth and 
disease even when their doing so does not affect 
others, so strict regulations are made to prevent the 


28 


OUR AMERICA 


spread of disease. These take many forms. The 
food and milk supply is guarded; sa’nitary plumbing 
is required; overcrowding of people is prevented; 
sanitary conditions under which to work are required 
and proper ventilation in factories is compelled; sani¬ 
tary disposal of waste is required and also sanitary 
care of foodstuffs; spitting on the sidewalks or in 
public places is prohibited and regulations to pre¬ 
vent the use of the common drinking cup and to re¬ 
quire sanitary bedding in hotels are made. These 
examples will serve to show the variety of things 
which the people do to protect themselves in matters 
of health. 

We shall take up this subject of public health 
more fully later, but it should be remarked here that 
millions of lives have been saved by protective health 
work. Without public health work only a small 
part of the people would grow up to maturity. 

Health in City and Country.—More health work 
is done in cities than in the country and as a result 
the cities as a whole are becoming nearly as healthy 
as the country although by all odds the country 
ought to be the healthier. Some cities are actually 
healthier than the rural districts. The country dis¬ 
tricts need to be aroused on this subject. 

Accidents on Highways.—Protection from acci¬ 
dents increases in importance with the growth of 
cities and the extended use of motor vehicles. In 
quiet country townships a few years ago there was 
scarcely any need for regulation to prevent acci- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


29 


dents on the highways. Custom fixed the rule of 
the road so that every driver turned to the right 
when meeting a vehicle or turned out on the left 
when overtaking and passing another vehicle. Speed 
was not a factor. There were no limits fixed, but 
of course reckless driving was prohibited. About 
the only regulation necessary dealt with traction 
engines which often frightened horses and caused 
damages. To-day, with the use of the automobile, 
the case is different and many regulations are needed 
to prevent accidents. Laws therefore limit speed, 
fix a code of rules, generally require a competent 
driver, and otherwise protect the public from dan¬ 
ger. 

Accidents on the Streets.—The illustration above 
indicates what is taking place everywhere and espe¬ 
cially in the cities. There the regulation of traffic 
in such a way as to cause it to move fast without 
danger of accident, has always been a big problem. 
With the coming of the automobile and the increase 
of traffic on narrow streets, the problem has vastly 
increased. 

The police are called upon to handle this prob¬ 
lem and they do it by regulations fitted to the par¬ 
ticular place. Corner policemen signal the vehicles 
to move first on one street across the corner and 
then on the other; lines are drawn to guide drivers; 
safety zones are established by lines or ropes to 
protect people getting on and off street-cars; heavy 
traffic is prohibited on some streets; and on others 



% 


A Modern Battleship 




















THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


31 


bor fight a fire, but there is no organization and no 
special apparatus. In the villages where there is 
greater danger of the spread of a fire some efforts 
are commonly made to provide for apparatus and 
water supply, leaving the work, as in the country, 
to volunteers. In larger places, however, the risk to 
property and life is so great that the towns and 
cities maintain trained fire departments and efficient 
fire-fighting apparatus, at the public expense. The 
danger to all becomes so great that all join for 
the common benefit. 

Accidents in Factories.—In the factories and 
workshops where millions of the people labor, pro¬ 
tection against common dangers is being enforced, 
for, amid the complex machinery of modern fac¬ 
tories, a man can not, by his own efforts, protect 
himself. Many thousands are killed every year in 
the factories of the United States and the injured 
number hundreds of thousands. The number of men 
killed and injured each year makes the losses in some 
terrible battles seem insignificant in comparison. 

To promote the safety of workers, laws are en¬ 
acted requiring such matters as safe construction of 
machinery, guards on all dangerous parts such as 
saws and gears, and shorter hours for laborers which 
lessen accidents caused by fatigue. Health of 
workers is cared for also by requirements for venti¬ 
lation, proper lighting, blowers and dust removers, 
and sanitary surroundings. Practises dangerous to 
health are not permitted and everything is being 


I 


32 


OUR AMERICA 


done by law to save the workers from unnecessary 
harm. At the same time, through education, work¬ 
ers are learning how to protect their health. 

Safety Devices on Trains.—For the safety of the 
public as well as the workers, many requirements 
for safety are fixed for the operation of trains, street¬ 
cars and other conveyances. Automatic couplers 
which the law compelled railroads to put on their 
cars have saved thousands of lives. The air-brake 
which also has been required makes the handling 
of trains much safer than in the old days of the 
hand-brake. Block signals have helped wonderfully 
to prevent collisions. Long hours for the men re¬ 
sponsible for the running of the trains have been 
prohibited because the danger is too great to the 
public when men, who are tired out, are still com¬ 
pelled to continue their work. Thus the hours of 
railroad engineers have been limited to sixteen, and 
of the telegraphers in train service to nine hours. 

Protection Against Fraud.—The protection of the 
people against fraud is another important phase of 
the matter we are discussing. There used to be 
an old maxim, ‘‘Let the buyer beware” which every 
one was supposed to follow. The buyer had to look 
out for himself under that maxim. In less complex 
society, that rule worked fairly well, but to-day it 
would mean the oppression of the poor, ignorant or 
careless, by the crafty or strong. A person can buy a 
bushel of wheat and easily see that he gets a square 
deal, but the same person can not know that he 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


33 


is getting a square deal when he buys prepared 
foods, such as canned beef or vegetables. So many 
cheats have been imposed on the people from 
fraudulent goods that the demand has come to re¬ 
quire pure food and honest labeling. Likewise, the 
people demand pure drugs and similarly the cry is 
coming for pure fabrics because of the cheating in 
the quality of rubber, silk, woolen, cotton, etc. 

Honest Weights and Measures.—Honest weights 
and measures have also come to be insisted upon. 
Some people keep weighing scales at home and pre¬ 
vent fraud on themselves, but the majority do not. 
States and cities are therefore giving attention to 
the subject to see that dealers give honest weights 
and measures. Such regulations are a help to honest 
dealers because they do not have to compete with 
those who undersell them by cheating on weights 
and measures. 

Banking.—Another phase of business, which is so 
close to the people as to need special control to pro¬ 
tect them from fraud, is that of banking. Banking 
is a means by which the money of the people is gath¬ 
ered together in the form of deposits in the banks 
and used for the business of the community. A 
depositor wants safety for his funds and he wants to 
be able to get his money when he needs it. The 
banks hold themselves responsible for the funds de¬ 
posited. 

Every one is concerned that the banks be run hon¬ 
estly. The temptation to tricksters to engage in the 


34 


OUR AMERICA 


business is so great that the strictest kind of regula¬ 
tions are needed to prevent fraud and to protect hon¬ 
est bankers. All banks are strictly controlled by the 
state or national government and very few banking 
losses now occur. With closer care even the losses 
which now sometimes occur will be prevented. 

Insurance.—Insurance is another phase of busi¬ 
ness which is closely regulated, in order to protect 
the innocent person who is insured. This business, 
like banking, offers a great chance for tricksters 
unless it is closely regulated. When a person takes 
out insurance of any kind, he wants to be sure that 
he will be paid if losses occur. In the case of life 
insurance, the payment may be many years later and 
the people must see that the business shall be con¬ 
ducted so that the policies will be paid when due. 

Ordinary individuals who take insurance are not 
capable of understanding so complicated a matter 
as insurance. They must rely on the honesty of the 
business. The business would not be possible at all 
unless people had confidence in the future as well as 
the present management. The people therefore 
make strict regulations to insure the safety of the 
business and to jprevent frauds. 

Blue Sky Companies.—The promotion of fake com¬ 
panies for the purpose of cheating people is another 
kind of fraud worked on the public. Such concerns 
are called ‘‘blue sky” companies. They sell stocks 
and bonds in fake concerns and lands which often 
exist only in the “blue sky.” Stocks in mining com- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


3:) 


panics have been for years a favorite fraud. Stories 
of fabulous profits in mines have caused many 
unwary persons to invest their dollars. The pro¬ 
moter gets the money and the purchaser gets a finely 
printed stock certificate which proves worthless. 

Purchasers should, of course, be cautious. Every 
one should look to the character of the men who are 
promoting a company as well as to the prospects of 
the business before he invests his money. We recog¬ 
nize, however, that many will be imposed upon by 
clever swindlers and so efforts are made by the 
people to prevent such frauds. In many states every 
company must be examined as to its soundness be¬ 
fore it is permitted to sell its stock. The post-office 
department is constantly preventing frauds by re¬ 
fusing the use of the mails to any concern which they 
find to be fraudulent. In many ways, the people are 
thus protected. But more active efforts are needed 
because hundreds of millions are still lost through 
fraudulent work. 

Conclusion.—What has been said in this chapter 
concerning protection of the people attempts merely 
to outline the main ways in which the power of all is 
combined to aid each. There are many other ways 
which could be maintained. A catalogue might read¬ 
ily be made of ways in which the people of any given 
place protect themselves. The needs vary from place 
to place, but everywhere the idea is the same, that 
all that can be done should be done to see that every¬ 
body is protected and gets a square deal. 


36 


OUR AMERICA 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Mention the principal thing v/hich a person would 
have to do to protect himself if he had to depend entirely 
upon himself to protect his life, liberty and property. 

What does your community do to protect people on 
the highways and streets? Get copies of the laws or 
rules relating to these subjects. 

What do the people of your community and of your 
state do to protect the health of all? Are there any regu¬ 
lations about the drinking cup? Common towel? Spit¬ 
ting on sidewalks? Protection of food supply? Protec¬ 
tion of milk supply? Are these strictly enforced? Get 
copies of laws or rules relating to these subjects. 

What protection is given against fire? 

What is done to require honest and correct weights 
and measures in your community and state? 

Make inquiry of railroad men and make a list of the 
principal safety devices which protect the workers and 
the travelers. 

Make inquiry of workers in some factory to find out 
what safety devices are used to protect workers. 

In what way do the weather reports, made by the 
United States Weather Bureau, help to protect people 
and property? 

How large should the army and navy be to protect our 
interests? 

Why is it that laws are needed to protect the buyer of 
foods and clothing? Would it be fair to let the buyer look 
out for himself? 

What is the meaning of the term ‘‘blue sky companies’’? 
Why should they be prohibited ? 

Give reasons for the regulation of banking? Insurance? 

If you were robbed to whom would you report the mat¬ 
ter if you were in a city at the time? To whom would you 
report if you were in the country? 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


37 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that all persons engaged in making or selling 
articles of food should pass a health examination at fre¬ 
quent intervals. 

Resolved that every person engaged in running trains 
or street-cars should pass a physical examination. 

Resolved that vegetables should be sold by weight in¬ 
stead of by measure. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Howe, Modern City and Some of Its Problems. 

Chap. XVII “Police, Fire and Health Protection.” 

Haskin, American Government. 

Chap. IV “The Army.” 

Chap. V “The Navy.” 

Chap. X “The Department of Agriculture.” 

Chap. XI “The Weather Bureau.” 

Further sources of information are found in later chap¬ 
ters. 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Later chapters give specific references from which to 
obtain information on the subjects discussed. 


CHAPTER IV 


THE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT 

Thus far we have been taking a general view of 
the way men work and live in society. We have 
seen how, by the division of labor, men produce and 
exchange goods, thereby satisfying their needs and 
wants. We have seen how the people build and pro¬ 
vide many things for common use. We have seen, 
also, the necessity for making rules and regulations 
which protect each against dangers to life, liberty 
and property. 

The Basis of Government.—The means by which 
these things are accomplished are called government. 
Not being able by themselves to do all of the things 
which they want done, the people set up a body of 
men actually to do the work for them, subject of 
course to their approval. 

Government grows out of the necessities of every¬ 
day life. In its simplest elements, it is easy to under¬ 
stand for it is a part of our daily lives. We often for¬ 
get its importance because we are familiar with its 
simple workings. We could not get along without 
government to protect us and to provide for our com¬ 
mon needs. If all governments were abolished to¬ 
morrow, the people would, without a moment’s delay, 
38 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


39 


organize such form of government as their needs 
would require. 

There is a wrong idea of government in the minds 
of many people because of its origin. When kings 
and nobles managed affairs and people had to 
obey what was ordered, government was naturally 
considered an oppressive thing. It was forced upon 
them and w^as not usually for their benefit. It was 
a means by which the rulers got money and property 
for their own purposes. But democracy has made the 
government belong to the people. They own it, 
operate it and can do what they wish with it. They 
can modify it or even abolish it and reestablish it 
as they please. When people criticize the govern¬ 
ment, they criticize themselves, Government is no 
longer an outside power to oppress them but their 
own instrument for common welfare. 

The Three Acts of Government.—Logically and 
according to the practise of hundreds of years, gov* 
ernment consists of three main acts. 

Determining what shall be done. 

Doing that which is determined shall be done. 

Deciding disputed points which arise. 

The first act is legislative; the second, executive; 
and the third, judicial. 

Representation.—If it were possible for all of the 
people to come together, there would be no need to 
separate these three acts. The people would'meet to 
make the laws; they would meet again to enforce 
their laws and to decide disputed points. But, of 


40 


OUR AMERICA 


course, we know that it is impossible for all of the 
people to leave their work to do all these things. In 
the New England town, the people meet and do 
many things, particularly in deciding what shall be 
done; but nowhere do the people as a whole meet 
to do very much of their common work. 

By means of the ballot all of the people in many 
states and cities decide some matters. Under the 
plan called the initiative, the people in a number of 
states and cities actually make a few laws themselves; 
and through the referendum they decide whether 
certain laws passed by the law-making body shall go 
into effect. They make, however, by these means 
only a very small percentage of all the laws needed. 
Except in small communities and in such matters as 
road repair, the people as a whole do not execute 
laws; and they never do any part of the work which 
we call judicial. 

The Legislative Act.—^Since the people can not 
meet to do their common work by themselves, they 
must have a body of men selected to do it for them. 

In the first place there must be some means, pro¬ 
vided to determine what work shall be done or what 
rules or regulations shall be passed. The people 
must act through some agency in deciding, for 
instance, the way in which roads shall be built. They 
must act through some agency in deciding what rules 
and regulations shall govern the use of the roads. 
They must, also, act through some agency in decid¬ 
ing what regulations shall be made to keep men 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


41 


working in harmony and prevent them from inter¬ 
fering with one another’s rights. The people select 
a body of men whom they call representatives. These 
representatives determine what the people shall 
undertake to do. This is the legislative department 
of the government. It is merely the machinery which 
the people provide to determine their will as to what 
shall be done. 

The Executive Act.—Suppose that the people of 
a community should decide to build some work for 
common use and should decide how it shall be done. 
The next step is actually to do the work. Some one 
must be given the task of building. The people 
might all work together in building it, but even in 
that case some one must have charge. 

Suppose further that a community has made rules 
for individuals to follow. Some men must be desig¬ 
nated to see that the rules laid down are obeyed. A 
community can say, “We will have a road,” but the 
mere saying does not build it. A community may 
declare that such and such a thing shall not be al¬ 
lowed, but the mere declaration does not prevent it. 

The representatives of the people therefore, who 
decide what is to be done, also provide for other 
representatives to do the work. Usually the per¬ 
sons who carry out a plan are not the ones who 
make it. One body determines what shall be done 
and another body carries out the work. This second 
body of representatives who actually do the work of 
the community is called the executive department— 


42 


OUR AMERICA 


the body that executes or carries out what the legis¬ 
lative body determines to do. 

The Judicial Act.—When a thing is put into opera¬ 
tion, difficulties arise. We shall assume that a com¬ 
munity has decided to build a road to connect with 
other roads. Probably it would have to be built 
through some one’s property. It would be unfair to 
take one man’s property for the use of all, unless 
each contributed alike. The person whose property 
is taken is entitled to payment. But supposing there 
is a dispute over the amount. The man has a right 
to fair treatment, but the men who are actually doing 
the work might be unfair. So, if a dispute arises, a 
court or jury hears all the arguments and decides 
whether the man has had justice. 

More numerous are the disputes which arise over 
the rules and regulations requiring certain things to 
be done or prohibiting other things. The law says, 
‘‘No person shall drive an automobile more than 
fifteen miles an hour.” A policeman thinks another 
is exceeding that limit and has him arrested. An 
impartial body—a court—or a jury must decide from 
the evidence whether the person arrested was driving 
more than fifteen miles an hour. That is the only 
way to be fair to all concerned. One man charges 
that another is interfering with his rights; disputes 
and quarrels occur. They can not decide and some 
one must settle the question. Disputes range all 
the way frorti trivial quarrels over damage by a neigh¬ 
bor’s hens to matters involving millions of dollars in 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


43 


which one person claims that others are interfering 
with his just rights. 

We are all familiar with the way in which disputes 
arise on the baseball and football field. The rules 
are laid down and all players are required to follow 
them. Yet every moment, differences of opinion 
arise. ‘‘Was the runner out at first?” “Did the 
pitcher make a balk?” “Did the baseman interfere 
with the runner?” It is hardly likely that a single 
game could be played through without the aid of the 
umpire—the court—who decides. The umpire’s 
duty is to see that justice is done and that all players 
play the game fairly, according to the rules. 

In the larger game of making a living and in pur¬ 
suing happiness, an umpire is needed to see that the 
game is played fairly, according to the rules laid 
down, and that no person takes advantage of another. 
It is the duty of the judicial department to see that 
the rights of each are guarded against unfair methods 
and to show what the law means in each new situa¬ 
tion which arises. 

Constitution Making.—How does the government 
in this country get its form? How are the legislative, 
executive and judicial departments determined and 
how are the men who do the people’s work in these 
departments kept doing what they ought to do and 
kept from doing what they ought not to do? 

Let us take a simple case. Suppose that there 
were one thousand people in a community apart from 
all others. These thousand people would require 


44 


OUR AMERICA 


some government to be set up to handle their com¬ 
mon affairs. They would doubtless meet as a body 
to decide upon a plan. This plan would be set forth 
in a constitution which would definitely state of what 
the government should consist, what powers it 
should have and would declare definitely that the 
officers in control should not do certain things. The 
thousand people would then go back to their own 
affairs and leave the persons selected as their repre¬ 
sentatives to do the work, according to their wishes 
expressed in the constitution. Provision would be 
made also to make changes in the constitution when- . 
ever needed. 

Constitutions for a large group of people compris¬ 
ing a state or the whole nation are similar in char¬ 
acter. All of the people of the state or the nation, 
through representatives selected for the purpose, 
have framed constitutions which are tTieir supreme 
law. The constitution decides what the powers of 
the government shall be and determines how the 
legislative, executive and judicial work shall be organ¬ 
ized and how the work shall be done in carrying 
on the common affairs of the people of the state or 
nation. No officer may do anything which is con¬ 
trary to the constitution. Whatever he may do 
which is contrary has no effect whatever because the 
constitution is the supreme law. 

Checking the Government.—The people have 
always been careful not to give too much power to 
their officials because they have feared the tyranny 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


45 


of officers. Their fear came from their experience 
and knowledge of oppressive governments. Govern¬ 
ment by kings and nobles over whom they had no 
control caused them to be careful in setting up their 
own government to see that no one should have 
arbitrary power over them. One of the first things 
they established in their constitutions was a bill of 
rights or a code of civil liberty. 

Religious and Civil Liberty.—Under modern con¬ 
stitutions, the right to religious freedom is guaran¬ 
teed. Every man is given the right to worship as he 
pleases and any attempt to make a law or to enforce 
a law interfering with that right has no force. A 
man^s life, liberty and property are declared to be 
safe from interference by laws or officers. They could 
not be taken away except by due process of law—■ 
.that is, they could not be taken unfairly. 

False Imprisonment.—No one can be put into 
prison without cause. Any person charged with 
crime has a right to have his case heard speedily and 
to have counsel and witnesses and also to be let out 
on bail. Arbitrary governments often threw men 
into prison and kept them there on false pretenses. 
Our officials have no such powers because the people 
have provided for their own protection through the 
Constitution. 

Free Speech.—Every person is guaranteed the 
right to free speech but, of course, he is responsible 
for false statements in speech or writing. This is 
considered one of the most precious civil rights be- 


46 


OUR AMERICA 


cause it enables us fearlessly to attack every 
abuse. 

Freedom of Assemblage.—Likewise the people's 
right to assemble peaceably and to express them¬ 
selves on their common affairs is a precious right 
which is guaranteed. In despotic countries, the 
gathering of people for such purposes is forbidden 
so that the people have no chance to consult for their 
common good. In this country, we believe that the 
best way to handle difficult questions is to let the 
people have the fullest discussion of them. There is 
a limit, however, which we do not permit people to 
exceed. Meetings which urge violence are not gen¬ 
erally tolerated. 

Equal Rights.—Equal rights tu all being the key¬ 
note of democracy, it is essential that no special 
privileges be granted to any one. All must be treated 
alike and any right which is granted to one person 
must be equally open to all. No other system would 
be tolerable and it is. the constant purpose of all true 
lovers of democratic government to try to live up to 
this ideal. 

Where to Find Our Safeguards.—These are some 
of the more important matters in which the people 
protect themselves against the unfairness of officers 
who may be in power. For further facts read the bill 
of rights in your own state constitution which pro¬ 
tects against any state, county, city or township 
officers; and the first ten amendments to the federal 
Constitution which protect the people against federal 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


47 


officers; and the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth 
amendments to the federal Constitution which pro¬ 
tect against any national, state or local officers, who 
may exceed their powers. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

What does the Declaration of Independence say on the 
nature of government? Where does the just power of 
government come from? 

Show how government arises from actual needs. 

Name the principal things which government does 
with which you are familiar. 

Why is it impossible for the people by themselves actu- 
ally to do the work of governing? 

What parts of the common work can the people readily 
do? 

What are the purposes of government set out in the 
preamble of the United States Constitution? Of your 
state constitution? 

Discuss the statement that all people should have equal 
rights and that no one should have special privileges. 

Show the importance to the people of their right to assem¬ 
ble to discuss their common affairs. 

Why is it necessary to have safeguards against the tyr- 
ranny of officers ? 

Read the bill of rights in your state constitution. Read 
the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. 
Read also the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amend¬ 
ments to the United States Constitution. 

Why do we need a constitution? 

What is the meaning of the term “representative”? 

Would it be possible for the people by means of the 
ballot to decide what should be done in all cases? Give 


reasons. 


48 


OUR AMERICA 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the people criticize themselves when they 
criticize their government. 

Resolved that the people should do more of their work 
themselves and leave less to their representative. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Declaration of Independence, Appendix, p. 359. 

The state constitution of your state (preamble and bill 
of rights). 

United States Constitution (preamble and first fifteen 
am.endments). 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State University, Head of Department of Political 
Science, Economics or Sociology. 


CHAPTER V 


THE PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT OF THE 
UNITED STATES 

There were about ninety-two million people in the 
United States in 1910, when they were counted by 
the United States Census Bureau. The number had 
increased to one hundred million in 1915 and now 
increases more than two million a year. 

Facts About the People of the United States.—^The 
ninety-two million people were distributed over an 
area of land of two million nine hundred seventy-three 
thousand eight hundred and ninety square miles, or an 
average of about thirty-one persons to the square 
mile. The distribution was very uneven, ranging 
from five hundred and eight persons to the square 
mile in Rhode Island to less than one person per 
square mile in Nevada. That is, in Rhode Island 
there was one person for a little more than each acre 
of ground while in Nevada there were more than 
six hundred and forty acres for each person. There 
were thousands living in single blocks in the great 
cities while a few persons occupied thousands of 
acres in the country. 

Rural and City Population.—Another comparison 
is important. There were in 1920, fifty million eight 
49 


50 


OUR AMERICA 


hundred sixty-six thousand eight hundred and ninety- 
nine people living in rural communities and fifty-four 
million eight hundred sixteen thousand two hundred 
and nine people living in cities and towns of over 
two thousand five hundred. Fifty-one and nine-tenths 
per cent, of all the people lived in cities and larger 
towns. The number in cities is on the rapid increase. 
Forty and five-tenths per cent, lived in cities and 
towns in 1900 and only thirty-six and one-tenth per 
cent, in 1890. 

Occupaticwis.—In 1910, thirty-eight million of these 
people were engaged in some profitable employment, 
and twenty million more were engaged in home-mak¬ 
ing. At that time there were more than nine thou¬ 
sand different occupations in which the people earned 
their living. 

Of the thirty-eight million people engaged in em¬ 
ployment in 1910, twelve million six hundred fifty- 
nine thousand were engaged in farming, forestry and 
animal industry; nearly one million in mining; ten 
million six hundred fifty-eight thousand in manufac¬ 
turing and mechanical work; two million six hundred 
thirty-seven thousand in railroad and other transpor¬ 
tation; three million six hundred fourteen thousand 
in trade; one million six hundred sixty-three thousand 
in professional service; three million seven hundred 
seventy-two thousand in domestic and personal serv¬ 
ice ; one million seven hundred thirty-seven thousand 
engaged in clerical occupations, such as bookkeepers 
and stenographers. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


51 


Foreign Immigrants.—Thirteen million five hun¬ 
dred fifteen thousand or fourteen and seven-tenths 
per cent, of our people were born in a foreign coun¬ 
try. These people came from all parts of the world 
but principally from European countries. Thirty- 
three per cent, of the population of Rhode Island was 
foreign born, thirty-one and five-tenths per cent, of 
Massachusetts and thirty per cent, of New York while 
only three-tenths per cent, were foreign born in North 
Carolina and one-half of one per cent, in Mississippi. 

Illiterates.—There were in 1910 more than five 
million five hundred thousand persons over ten years 
of age who could not read and write and there were 
two million two hundred seventy-three thousand six 
hundred and three men of voting age who could not 
read and write. Seven and seven-tenths per cent, of 
all the people were thus illiterate and eight and four- 
tenths per cent, of all the voters could not read nor 
write. 

The Importance of These Facts.—The statements 
given above show the main facts about our people 
and their work. It is with people and what they do 
that we are concerned in our study of government. 
Our one hundred million inhabitants must work to¬ 
gether in harmony in providing for their common 
needs. Rules must be made so that each may live 
without unfair interference from others and so that 
no single person may interfere unfairly with the rights 
of all. 

The people in this country are the ones who decide 


52 


\ OUR AMERICA 


what things shall be done for the benefit of them¬ 
selves and what rules shall be made for the conduct 
of all. 

Need of Different Forms of Government.—The 
first thing which the facts show is that the same 
rules will not do for all parts of the country. The 
same rules will not do for Rhode Island where there 
are five hundred and eight persons to the square 
mile and ninety-six and six-tenths per cent, live in 
cities and towns, and for Nevada where there is less 
than one person to the square mile and only sixteen 
and three tenths per cent, live in cities and towns. 
The same rules will not do for the crowded city 
and the rural districts. The same rules will not do 
for some of the eastern parts of the country where 
nearly all are engaged in manufacturing and trans¬ 
portation and for some of the western parts where 
the great majority are engaged in agriculture. The 
same rules will not do either for a state where every¬ 
body is educated and for a state where there are great 
numbers of illiterates. Likewise, there must be a 
difference in places where there are large numbers of 
persons born in a foreign country and in places where 
the people are all native born and have the same hab¬ 
its and ideals. 

So that, if we were to start out to-day to make a 
plan of government to fit our people, we would 
-doubtless divide the country up into parts and we 
would say to each part, “You look after your own 
{problems to suit yourself, altogether we will look 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


53 


after those things which concern all of us.” Then, 
each part or state would do whatever it deemed best 
for itself; and all of the parts acting together through 
the nation would do those things which concern all 
of the people of all of the states. 

Division of Work Between States and Nation.— 
That is the way things are done but it did not come 
about by a single process. It came about gradually 
as a result of conditions. The thirteen colonies after 
the Declaration of Independence in 1776 were 
separate and distinct states. Each took care of its 
own affairs but all tried to work together to win 
independence under an agreement called the Articles 
of Confederation. After the war, the states found 
that this agreement did not work because each state 
could do as it pleased without regard to the 
other states, and the people organized the fed¬ 
eral government in 1787 and gave it certain exclu¬ 
sive powers leaving all other powers for the states. 
Thus, those matters which concerned all the states 
were given to the federal government while those 
which were local were left to the states. The divi¬ 
sion of powers was made according to the needs of 
that time. Rather extensive powers for that time 
were given to the nation because we had just won 
independence and were subject to foreign dangers; 
and we needed the power of all to protect us. 

Powers of the Nation.—Naturally the first matter 
of concern was protection against foreign countries. 
The states could not protect themselves alone, so the 


54 


OUR AMERICA 


federal government was given control of the army 
and navy. All matters relating to foreign countries 
and to war or preparation for war were given to the 
federal government acting for all of the people of all 
of the states. 

The second matter of importance was that of 
trade. We have already seen that the exchange 
of goods is a necessity. It is more so now than 
in 1787; but at that time the need for a free exchange 
of goods among the states was so great as to bring 
about a demand for the federal Constitution. Seeing 
the absurdity of thirteen states setting up different 
requirements and interfering with trade, the people 
of all the states put the matter in the hands of the 
United States and gave power to the nation to regu¬ 
late commerce between the states. They went 
further and provided for aids to trade such as coin¬ 
ing money, fixing standards of weights and measures, 
and establishing post-offices and post roads. The 
object of these was to make commerce easier. It was 
evident to them as to us that money must be uniform 
so that it would pass in any state and that the stand¬ 
ards by which a bushel of grain or a pound of meat 
were measured should be the same in every state. 

The power was given, of course, to do all things 
necessary to provide the facilities for doing the work 
of the United States, such as building government 
buildings, dredging harbors and developing or dispos¬ 
ing of public lands. A few other powers were given, 
also, such as fixing the rule for naturalizing foreign- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


55 


ers who wish to become citizens of this country; 
granting patents and trade-marks; issuing of copy¬ 
rights; and making a uniform method of settling 
bankruptcies. 

The four important things which the nation could 
do were therefore: 

To attend to all dealings with foreign countries. 

To provide protection against foreign nations. 

To regulate trade among the states. 

To build works for common needs. 

Powers o£ the States.—The people merely said 
that the federal government should do a part of the 
things they wanted done and that the states should 
do the rest. They tried to divide the powers in such 
a way that those things which concern the people 
of all of the states should be done by the federal 
government, and those which concerned a single state 
should be done by that state. Of course, it was the 
state’s duty to protect its citizens within its borders; 
to promote trade within the state; and to build the 
necessary works for common use of its own citizens. 
In addition, all matters relating to education, public 
highways, caring for the poor and unfortunate, trans¬ 
ferring property, looking after the descent of prop¬ 
erty from a person to his heirs, draining swamps, 
etc., were assigned to the state. 

Division of Work Between States and Local Com¬ 
munities.—But the state could not by itself do all of 
the things required to be done. The same reasons 
which made it necessary that each state look after 


56 


OUR AMERICA 


its own local problems, made it desirable that each 
locality look after the things which concern it. The 
people of a state therefore divide the territory into 
counties and the counties into townships and often 
the townships into smaller districts. They assign to 
each, certain work which is local. The state recog¬ 
nizes peculiar problems such as those which a city or 
town brings. It makes a separate government for 
the cities and towns so that they can do those 
things which concern them. Further than that, there 
are problems such as the problem of drainage. This 
question may concern, a given territory composed of 
several counties or townships. Certain needs arise 
and for the purpose of meeting these needs, a separate 
organization is provided. Likewise a separate ar¬ 
rangement is sometimes made to prevent floods, es¬ 
tablish irrigation works, prevent fires, or furnish wa¬ 
ter or other facilities in the district affected. 

A Complex System.—Thus we see that the busi¬ 
ness of providing for the common needs of one hun¬ 
dred million people in this country and regulating 
their relations with one another requires an exten¬ 
sive organization. There are “wheels within wheels,” 
each one performing its function and all working 
for the fullest freedom and protection of each indi¬ 
vidual. 

A Double-Headed Country.—The peculiar feature 
about this country is the double management at the 
top. In most countries the national government is 
supreme and states are subject to it the same as cities. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


57 


counties and townships are subject to the state in 
this country. The nation exercises what power it 
pleases and gives the states, counties, townships or 
whatever they may be called such powers as it sees 
fit. In this country, as we have seen, there are two 
main heads. The nation exercises only the powers 
granted to it. The nation has no control over the 
states in their work and the states have no control 
over the nation in its work. The state does, how¬ 
ever, have entire control over the counties, town¬ 
ships, cities, towns and all other divisions of the 
state. It assigns them their powers, fixes their 
boundaries and could abolish them. These divisions 
are merely the agents of the state; to do the things 
which the state or the particular locality wants done. 
So the state makes general regulations and leaves 
the counties, townships, cities and towns to carry 
out these rules. 

In practise, of course, the states leave the local 
governments much freedom. In the case of cities, 
particularly, there is a strong tendency to let the city 
alone in matters which concern itself solely. The 
state controls affairs only when more than the people 
of the city are concerned. Home rule is the term 
applied to the movement to let local governments 
attend to their own affairs. 

Importance of Knowing the Form of Government. 
—It is important to study carefully what powers each 
one of our governments—local, state and national— 
exercises so that we may know where to appeal to get 


58 


OUR AMERICA 


things done and where to put the blame when things 
are not done or are done badly. We need to know 
what powers the officials in each of our governments 
have. We can go, then, direct to the right official 
when we want a thing done. The officials at Wash¬ 
ington get thousands of letters concerning things 
over which the federal government has no control; 
and the state officials likewise have thousands of re¬ 
quests concerning things which are attended to at 
Washington. Often candidates for office in states 
and cities promise all sorts of things which they 
could not perform if elected because they are not 
functions of the states or cities. If people really 
knew the power which the different officers possess, 
silly promises of candidates on the stump would be 
ridiculed. 

When we know the facts about the way our gov¬ 
ernments are constructed, we shall make, from time 
to time, sensible changes of powers of the different 
governments, to meet new conditions. Thus, if the 
state exercises power over the people of a city and 
through that power interferes with the good govern¬ 
ment of the city, the power should be transferred 
from the state to the city. If the city is trying to do 
things which it can not do well, the state should be 
called to help. If the nation can do things which on 
the part of forty-eight states are not well done, then 
the change ought to give extra power to the nation. 
Likewise if the nation is given power to do a thing 
which the states could do for themselves with greater 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


59 


effect, then the power should be given to the 
states. 

Value of Local Government.—The people of a 
locality ought to do everything which they can do. 
It stimulates the people of a city to make by their 
own efforts a clean city, to develop the very best 
educational system, to build playgrounds, good streets 
and pavements, and to do all work efficiently. This 
has the same effect as the accomplishment of tasks by 
children. If a child does a thing by himself he finds 
pleasure in it, but if some one does his tasks for him, 
he becomes lazy and uninterested. 

Examples of a Proper Division of Work Among 
Locality, State and Nation.—Matters which are too 
big for a locality to handle should be given to the 
state, and if too big for the state should be handled 
by the nation. Take the health problem as an 
example. Of course, each locality should see that 
everythingrthat might be dangerous to health is pre¬ 
vented. But a single locality can not be safe from 
disease by its own efforts. Diseases spread from 
place to place. One city may dump its sewage in a 
stream which carries disease to another city. Dis¬ 
ease unchecked in one city becomes dangerous to the 
people in many places. The state must step in to 
protect all the people. But even the states are at 
the mercy of other states if they neglect to prevent 
disease. Diseases travel from state to state. Rivers 
bearing pollution and disease run from state to state. 
A state can not regulate the condition, for it is out- 


60 


OUR AMERICA 


side its boundaries. Nothing* but the nation can 
effectively prevent such conditions. Here, then, we 
have an illustration of the sphere of each govern¬ 
ment and of the way in which all may cooperate to 
the benefit and protection of the people. 

So, also, in regulating railroads. The city is help¬ 
less except in very minor matters. The state is more 
powerful but only so far as it may regulate railroads 
entirely within its borders. The nation is the only 
power which extends over the entire field occupied 
by the railroads. So the city does what it can to 
make crossings safe in its limits; the state regulates 
those railroads which are entirely in the state; and 
the nation regulates those railroads which extend 
from state to state. 

On the other hand, the matter of regulating street 
traffic is wholly a city matter in which the state is 
not concerned. The city should be left entirely free 
therefore to regulate street traffic. Many other ques¬ 
tions are strictly local and the state should not have 
a voice in them. 

Likewise, the matter of charities is one which the 
states can handle by themselves without interference 
by the nation. They ought to do so, therefore, on 
the theory that each government should do those 
things which it can do best. The more the city can 
do, the better; and the more the state can do, the 
better. There will in any event be enough of very 
important work left for the nation to do. 

Constitutions.—The government of this nation^is 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


61 


organized under the Constitution of the United States. 
That Constitution was adopted in 1787 and has had 
seventeen amendments. It is the supreme law of the 
country on the matters with which it deals. No law 
may be passed or act done by the nation, state or city 
contrary to its provisions. 

Each state has its own constitution which is the su¬ 
preme law of the state in all matters where it does 
not conflict with the Constitution of the United States. 
State constitutions have been more frequently revised 
and changed than the national Constitution and 
changes now take place frequently. These constitu¬ 
tions are framed by the people of the state in a con¬ 
vention of representatives whom the people elect for 
that purpose and are voted upon by the people. No 
law may be passed by the legislature or act done by 
state or local officials contrary to the state constitu¬ 
tions. 

Cities generally have a charter which outlines the 
city government and fixes its powers. In some states 
this charter is the work of the state legislature and in 
others it is framed and adopted by the people of the 
city. The city council or commission or city officials 
may not do any act which is in conflict with the char¬ 
ter. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Why are the facts relating to the people and their work 
important in the discussion of government? 

Point out the main reasons why different laws are 
needed in different parts of the country. 


62 


OUR AMERICA 


What would be the effects of leaving the regulation 
of trade passing from state to state to each of the forty- 
eight states? 

What is the principal advantage of leaving the ques¬ 
tion of defense against foreign countries to the national 
government? 

Would it be possible for the state or the nation to reg¬ 
ulate the traffic in a city? 

What is the best test to determine whether it is better 
to have a thing done by the local government or by the 
state? By the state or by the nation? 

What is the method of making changes in or amending 
the United States Constitution? Yoiir state constitution? 
Why is it important to provide for changes or amendments ? 

Mention all of the different things which your city, town¬ 
ship or county can do well by itself without help from the 
state or nation. 

What are the advantages to us of attending to our own 
local affairs? 

Read section 8 of Article I of the United States Consti¬ 
tution which shows what powers the United States exer¬ 
cises through Congress. 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the building and care of highways 
should be left to the local government, the township or 
the county. 

Resolved that the nation should take steps to help 
remove illiteracy, although education is a matter left to 
the states and local governments. 


WHERE TO FIND FURTHER INFORMATION 

United States Constitution, Appendix, p. 364, Article 1 
on the powers of Congress. 

Abstract of the United States Census of 1910. (May 
be obtained free from the United States Census Bu- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


63 


reau, Washington, D. C. Contains facts about the 
people. 

Bryce, American Commonwealth, 

Vol. 1, Chap. XXVII “The Federal System.’’ 

Chap. XXVIII “Working Relations of the National 
and State Governments.” 

Chap. XXIX “Criticism of the Federal System.” 
Chap. XXI “Merits of the Federal System.” 

Howe, Modern City and Some of Its Problems, 

Chap. VI “The City and the State.” 

Chap. VTI “Municipal Home Rule.” 

Chap. VHI “The City Charter.” 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U. S. Census Bureau for specific information on popu¬ 
lation. 

U. S. Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization for 
information regarding immigration and citizenship. 


CHAPTER VI 


ROADS AND STREETS 

In many respects roads and streets are t he most 
important matters with which the people have to 
deal. Civilized life is not possible without means of 
travel and transportation. Every civilized nation 
has found this to be so and almost from the earliest 
times of which we have record, roads have been built 
for the common benefit. Usually in the earlier times 
roads -were built for military purposes. It was neces¬ 
sary that means of sending troops quickly to any 
part of the country be provided. Rome learned that 
and her strength was largely due to her splendid 
system of roads over which she could send her 
legions to distant parts of her domain. Modern nations 
have learned the lesson too, and a network of roads 
and railroads is one of the chief defenses of nations. 
The United States in the early days saw the neces¬ 
sity of binding the country together and spent mil¬ 
lions in building the National Road from Baltimore 
to the Mississippi. 

Modern Roads Are for Commerce.—Modern roads, 
in this country at least, are not built for military 
purposes. They are laid out to enable people to travel 
for profit or pleasure and make possible the transpor- 
64 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


65 


taticn and exhange of goods. They have grown up to 
meet the immediate need without a general plan. 
From mere trails they have developed into roads. In 
the older sections of the country, the laying out of 
roads is about completed and the present problem is 
to rebuild and maintain them to meet the require¬ 
ments of the changing modern traffic. 

Development of Roads.—The history of road de¬ 
velopment in a community follows a uniform course. 
First, there is need of a trail to penetrate the new 
country. As people begin to use this trail, demands 
for improvement come. The most dangerous parts 
are made safe. When traffic increases, constant re¬ 
pair is needed. When heavy vehicles begin to be 
used, the roads must have a firmer foundation and 
need greater care. Automobiles make necessary a 
firmer surface as well as foundation. The develop¬ 
ment of the road into a city street makes necessary 
a solid pavement to stand the heavy and constant 
traffic. Brick, asphalt, concrete, stone and block 
pavement are needed in cities. 

The principle illustrated by the history of road 
development is that the roads should be built to meet 
the needs of the traffic. They should be able to 
stand the kind of traffic that passes over them. In 
building or improving a road, the first matter to de¬ 
termine is the amount and kind of traffic which will 
pass over it. A traffic census will show the kind and 
extent of the improvement which it is wise to make. 

Kinds of Roads.—To meet the various demands of 



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THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


67 


maintenance of these roads so that they may be rea¬ 
sonably satisfactory. Given proper grade lines, sur¬ 
face drainage, culvert and sub-drainage and the dirt 
road can be kept in fair condition for most of the 
year. 

Sand Clay Roads.—The next form of road to be 
discussed is the sand clay road, so named because it 
is made of a mixture of sand and clay in the right 
proportions so that it is neither sandy nor sticky. 
This kind of road is built by putting sand and clay 
on the roads and then thoroughly mixing these sub¬ 
stances with a disk harrow. The road is then rolled 
with a heavy road roller and a hard surface is formed. 
There are natural mixtures of sand and clay which 
form natural sand clay roads. If the right kind of 
sand and clay are near at hand, sand clay roads can 
be constructed very cheaply. In grade, drainage and 
foundation, they should follow the principles which 
are followed in building dirt roads. The grade 
should not exceed five per cent, which means a rise 
of five feet in one hundred feet; the foundation should 
be well drained so as to give a firm base; and the sur¬ 
face should be drained to prevent damage by stand¬ 
ing surface water. Along such roads there should 
be open spaces so that plenty of sunshine may be had 
to keep the road dry. A good sand clay road costs 
from two hundred dollars to one thousand two hun¬ 
dred dollars a mile depending upon the nearness of 
materials. 

Gravel Roads.—The gravel road is constructed by 


68 


GUR AMERICA 


preparing the grade and then placing a suitable 
amount of gravel, usually from eight to twelve inches 
deep in the center. The gravel is then rolled with a 
heavy roller until it is crushed close together. Some¬ 
times the gravel is screened and the coarser gravel 
put on the bottom. Good road-building gravel should 
be hard, tough and have cementing or binding power. 
To make a good gravel road, the particles must 
cement together. This kind of road is more ex¬ 
pensive than sand clay roads and the importance of 
care in building and repairing is greater. Failures 
are commonly due to the following main causes, ac¬ 
cording to Logan W. Page in his book. Roads, Paths and 
Bridges : 

Poor material. 

Spreading the gravel in dry weather; dumping it 
in heaps and leaving it for traffic to compact. 

Placing the gravel on surfaces filled with ruts and 
holes. 

Insecure or poorly drained foundation. 

Improper construction of ditches or culverts. 

Making the road so narrow that wagons will track, 
thereby forming deep ruts. 

Failure to fill ruts and holes with gravel. 

Macadam Road.—The macadam road is the next 
most expensive and durable road. It is usually 
known as a broken stone road because its main parts 
are of stone broken and crushed for the purpose. The 
broken stone is placed upon a foundation properly 
graded and drained and is rolled with a road roller 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


69 


until it is compact. About a six-inch layer of stone 
is rolled at one time. After the stone is sufficiently 
rolled, screenings or binder is spread on top and 
rolled. This causes the pieces of broken stone to 
knit together. Sometimes, a special binding prepara¬ 
tion is used and such roads are known as bituminous 
macadam roads. A good macadam road costs from 
two thousand to ten thousand dollars a mile. It is 
a durable road for moderate traffic, but is not suc¬ 
cessful where there is heavy traffic as in cities. 

Brick and Concrete Roads.—The failure of the 
dirt, sand clay, gravel and macadam roads to stand 
heavy traffic has caused some communities to use 
brick and concrete. Cuyahoga County (Cleveland, 
Ohio), has many miles of brick pavement on country 
roads; Wayne County, (Detriot, Michigan), and 
Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, have used concrete 
extensively for roads. 

Street Pavements.—When we consider the streets 
of cities, we should consider them as roads which 
are called upon to bear heavier traffic and conse¬ 
quently need to be stronger. The kind of roads 
sufficient for the smaller traffic of the country will 
not do in the city. Even the macadam road will not 
endure under city traffic. The very best pavements 
that have been devised are not able always to stand 
the strain of the traffic on busy streets. Cobble 
stone and stone block were the first forms of city 
pavement. Then came brick, specially hardened for 
paving purposes, and wood block. Asphalt next came 


70 


OUR AMERICA 


into use and is now the most common form of pave¬ 
ment. Concrete pavements have been put down ex¬ 
tensively during the last few years in city and 
country. Various forms of patented pavements have 
been invented and used, as, Bitulithic, Warrenite, 
Rocmac, etc. The process of building all these pave¬ 
ments, including brick and concrete, consists in 
placing the proper thickness of these materials upon 
a solid foundation usually made of concrete. 

Success Dependent Upon Intelligent Construction. 
—There have been many failures of all kinds of pav¬ 
ing and there are examples of success for each, which 
suggests that the success or failure may be due to the 
method of construction and maintenance. The mat¬ 
ter of foundation is all important. The best surfac¬ 
ing will not hold upon a weak and crumbling founda¬ 
tion. The pavement must, also, be adapted to the 
place and the traffic. Soil conditions and climate 
also have their effect. It is the work of an expert to 
select pavements suitable to a given place and super¬ 
vise their construction. Billions of dollars have been 
wasted by incompetent men in charge of building 
roads. 

Repair and Maintenance.—Repair of both roads 
and streets is all important. Generally it has been 
done in a haphazard way by men who are not ex¬ 
perts at the work. Dirt roads are usually looked 
after by farmers who spend a day or two a year at 
the work and have no chance to become skilled in it. 
Gravel and macadam roads are generally left for the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


71 


most of the year uncared for and little causes bring 
large troubles. Streets are too often managed by 
politicians who are not appointed because of their 
knowledge and skill in repairing and maintaining 
streets. 

The remedy for these conditions is to be found 
in providing for skilled men to look after the roads 
and streets the year round. Instead of repairing 
country roads once a year, skilled road men should 
be employed at all times to look carefully after the 
roads and repair any defects as soon as they appear. 

The patrol system is the ideal plan for country 
roads. A certain number of miles of road should 
be put under the supervision of a competent man 
who should go over the road daily, repairing any 
breaks in the road, filling holes, and keeping the 
drains open. ‘‘A stitch in time saves nine” is a good 
maxim to apply in caring for the roads. Materials 
for road repair should be distributed along the road 
so as to be always at hand for the use of the road 
patrolmen. City streets should be patrolled in the 
same way and constantly repaired. 

Control and Management of Roads.—We come, 
now, to the matter of control and management of 
these matters upon which the people spend three hun¬ 
dred million dollars every year out of taxes and mil¬ 
lions more from bond issues. These matters are 
managed by road districts, townships, counties and 
the state. The cities and towns look after their own 
streets. 


72 


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Local Control and Management.—Sometimes it 
makes a matter clear to tell a bit of history, and the 
control of roads can be illustrated by that method. 
A few years ago the roads of this country were man¬ 
aged entirely by local authorities. The townships 
and the road districts into which the townships or 
counties were divided were supreme masters of road 
building and repair. A township road commissioner 
or the road district pathmaster was the principal road 
official. All able-bodied men were compelled to work 
on the roads or pay the road tax assessed against 
them. The road supervisor or pathmaster ordered 
the men out to work on the roads at convenient times 
and the men came with tools or teams and generally 
loafed or at most did only a fraction of a good day's 
work. The scheme did not anywhere result in good 
roads. There was no expert supervisor of roads and 
no road engineer to look after difficult problems. 
The roads in many parts were impassable for a large 
part of the year. 

State Aid and Supervision.—As long as people 
had no concern outside of their vicinity this system 
brought no general hardship. Each community 
suffered from its own neglect. But as relations 
broadened and each community began to depend 
upon other communities, when-cities grew up which 
had to depend upon a wider area of country for sup¬ 
port, it brought hardships to others if a community 
neglected its roads. It became evident, at once, 
that in some way, all of the people who depended 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


73 


upon the roads should have a voice in their control. 
Powers were given to counties to build and maintain 
the more important highways. The same force 
finally brought the state into action to build main 
roads because of the need for good means of trans¬ 
portation over wider areas. The coming of the auto^ 
mobile and motor-truck has made even the state too 
small a unit and we have now the agitation for 
national aid so that great thoroughfares may con¬ 
nect all parts of the country. 

In almost every state the course of development 
has been the same. Local control has given way to 
the larger interests of the counties and state. The 
movement has been helped considerably by the recog¬ 
nition that road building is a scientific matter and 
that experts are needed for it. The larger the area 
having charge of the roads, the better the talent em¬ 
ployed. It was an improvement to center the work 
in a township officer who worked all the time. It 
was a further improvement when a single officer 
supervised the work for a whole county. It was a 
real step for efficiency when state highway depart¬ 
ments were formed with expert engineers to give 
advice and to supervise highway work. 

In some states the old system of purely local con¬ 
trol still exists. Several states have partly aban¬ 
doned it, and many have done away with it entirely. 

Plan for Control of Roads.—The best thought of 
the country and, also, the best practise approves the 
system now being established as follows: 


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OUR AMERICA 


1. Township officials have charge of township 
roads, mostly dirt roads. 

2. A county road official has charge of the more 
important roads ‘connecting different parts of the 
county and gives advice to township officials and 
supervises their work. 

3. A state department or engineer gives aid and 
counsel to county and township officials on road 
problems, inspects and supervises highway work, 
tests materials for road construction, passes upon 
plans for road improvement, and has charge of main 
highways which are known usually as state high¬ 
ways. 

4. A national bureau of roads studies the best 
methods of road construction in all parts of the 
world, gives expert advice to road officials of states, 
counties and townships, publishes educational liter¬ 
ature on road making, and would, if national aid 
should be granted to help build good roads, pass upon 
the plans of the states for which national aid is asked. 

This scheme of roads is paid for by all concerned. 
The township builds and maintains the roads which 
are useful mainly to its people. The county builds 
and maintains the roads which are useful to several 
townships. The state builds and maintains the main 
thoroughfares, or the state offers an inducement to 
the counties and townships by entering into a part¬ 
nership with them by which if they improve and main¬ 
tain a satisfactory road, the state pays part of the 
cost—usually one-third to one-half. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


75 


National Aid.—The plan for national aid extends 
this aid proposition. The national government 'would 
enter into the partnership and agree to help pay the 
cost of roads 'which form thoroughfares from state 
to state. 

The Future Importance of Roads.—We are un¬ 
doubtedly just in the beginning of road improve¬ 
ment in this country. By 1900 scarcely any steps 
had been taken to improve main roads. Now more 
than two hundred thousand miles have been im¬ 
proved. The people have just begun to realize the 
benefits which may come from good roads both in 
the way of profit and in pleasure. They have found 
that good roads result in cheaper transportation to 
market and consequently lower costs to the consumer 
and greater profits to the producer. They have 
learned that a road is no better than its steepest hills 
and worst mud-holes; for the hills and mud-holes 
determine the size of loads and the ease of travel. 

Improved roads will result in greater use. We 
now carry a little over two hundred and fifty million 
tons on the highways. We would carry four times 
that much if we had good roads. Good roads mean 
better schools, more valuable land, more enjoyments 
and better relations among the farmers. They are 
therefore the best means of building up the country 
and of keeping people from leaving for the city. 


76 


OUR AMERICA 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION. 

Make a map of the roads of your township or of thd 
streets of your city around your school. 

Show on the map the kinds of material used on the 
roads or streets indicated. 

What are the main conditions to be observed in decid¬ 
ing what kind of improvement should be made on a road 
or street? 

What are the principal matters which you would take 
into account in determining whether a road or street has 
been made at a fair cost? 

What is the relation of roads and streets to the cost 
of living? 

What is the value of the system of cooperation in road 
building by which the local governments do the work on 
plans from the state and with state aid for approved 
roads? 

Does the system of working out the road tax still pre¬ 
vail in your community? What are the results of it? 

Make a list of all of the different types of improved 
roads and streets and have a report upon each type by a 
member of the class. 

What is the value of a traffic census? 

If a road, in which you are interested, should need 
repairing, how :would you go about it to get it done ? 

What different kinds of road machinery are owned by 
your township? What different kinds of machinery for 
street making and repair does your city own? 

[What is the patrol system of repairing roads and streets? 

What is the value to the farmer of the building of thor¬ 
oughfares from state to state? To the city dweller? 

Should the farmers whose land borders a highway pay 
an extra portion of the cost of macadamizing the road? 

Would there be any likelihood that improved roads would 
increase the use of motor-trucks in your community and 
result in the use of that method for marketing crops ? 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


77 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that concrete roads are preferable to brick 
roads. 

Resolved that the national government should give aid 
to the state for the improvement of roads. 

Resolved that the patrol system is the most practicable 
means of maintaining roads and streets. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Page, Roads, Paths and Bridges, 

(Describes different types of roads and methods of 
maintenance.) 

Spalding, Text-hook on Roads and Pavements. 

American Highway Association, Official Good Roads 
Year Book of the United States. (Annual.) 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U. S. Bureau of Roads and Rural Engineering. 

State Highway Department or Engineer. 

County Highway Superintendent or Engineer, 

Local Highway Officials. 

American Highway Association. 


CHAPTER VII 


HEALTH PROTECTION 

The health of the people is their most important 
concern. Every one should look to the protection of 
his own health and the strengthening of his body as 
the matter of most importance to him. There is 
much ill health due to carelessness and ignorance. 
If knowledge of disease prevention were generally 
known, there would be far less sickness than at 
present and the length of life would be considerably 
increased. Good health is important to the indi¬ 
vidual but it is equally important to all of the people 
and to the nation of which they are a part. A nation 
in which large numbers of people are sick and which 
does little to prevent disease, can not stand against 
strong healthy nations. 

Health Protection Most Important.—For the bene¬ 
fit of the individual and for the protection of the 
whole people, it is important that careful attention 
be given to the matter of health. A few people will 
protect their own health because they know how, but 
most people must be instructed because they do not 
know how. A few people can not well protect them¬ 
selves against disease and therefore all should coop- 
78 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


79 


erate for prevention. The importance of health pro¬ 
tection increases as population increases and as peo¬ 
ple live closer together in crowded quarters. 

Prevention of Filth.—One of the first duties which 
the people perform in health protection is the pre¬ 
vention of filth which may carry disease germs. De¬ 
caying vegetables, dead animals, and refuse of all 
sorts are generally required in the cities to be re¬ 
moved and destroyed for they are unsanitary and fur¬ 
nish breeding places for rats and flies, both of which 
may carry disease germs. In the country where no one 
would be affected but the person causing the nui¬ 
sance to continue, it is not so important because only 
the person who is to blame would suffer, but as soon 
as it becomes dangerous to others, the people re¬ 
quire that the nuisance be removed. Where many 
people live close together, it becomes of greater im¬ 
portance, and where large numbers of people are 
crowded together as in cities, it is one of the first 
necessities that all kinds of filth shall be removed. 

In the country, however untidy it may be to do so, 
the wastes of the kitchen may be thrown out the 
back door without serious’danger to health, but in 
the city such waste would become a menace to the 
surrounding dwellers. We could not imagine any 
outside interference in the way a person keeps house 
in the country unless the conditions are extreme¬ 
ly bad. No one would go into a kitchen to compel 
the owner to clean up, but when hundreds of families 
live in a single tenement building, one kitchen might 


80 


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be the breeding place for diseases which would affect 
all of the dwellers. 

So it is in all matters relating to refuse and filth. 
As population increases, refuse and filth become 
more and more dangerous. In crowded cities, efforts 
must be made to prevent the accumulation of filth 
and refuse where it would endanger the health of 
the people. 

Power of Health Boards to Remove Nuisances.— 
The health boards of cities and towns are authorized 
to remove any such condition which might be danger¬ 
ous to health. They do so by orders issued to the 
owners of the property in which such nuisance is 
located; and if the owner fails to remove the bad 
conditions, the health board often removes them and 
charges the expense to the owner. The owner may 
also be fined and imprisoned for failure to comply 
with a reasonable order to clean up his premises. 

Prevention Better Than Cure.—The prevention of 
such conditions is, of course, more important than 
their cure. Prevention should always be the ideal in 
matters of this kind. Where bad conditions are 
likely to exist, provision should be made in advance 
to prevent them. Thus, in the city, the individual 
housekeeper can not dispose of the refuse without 
great expense. If each individual took care of it 
himself, it would be too heavy a burden because he 
might have to travel many miles to find a safe dump¬ 
ing place. Cities and towns provide, therefore, for 
the doing of these things by the government. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


81 


Necessity of Sewage Disposal.—Likewise in th^^ 
case of sewage, cities and towns provide for the in^ 
stallation of sewer systems and generally require tha* 
every house be connected with the system or have 
a sanitary system of its own for the disposal of sew¬ 
age. The danger to public health in this matter is 
so serious that the authorities make special provision 
for the inspection of the plumbing so as to make 
sure that disease-breeding sewer gas may not escape 
into the buildings. This is one of the most im¬ 
portant sanitary provisions because it prevents con¬ 
ditions which might breed disease. Given a good 
system of sewage disposal and garbage collection and 
a rigid set of rules to require everybody to be care¬ 
ful in the disposal of garbage and sewage, and the 
worst dangers to health in the city are removed. 

Water, Milk and Food Supply.—The next matter 
of importance is that of the water, milk and food 
supply. In the country and small towns and even 
in the smaller cities this matter does not present so 
serious a problem since the causes of contamination 
are not so numerous. Where it is possible to have 
a good supply of water from driven wells, there is 
little danger of disease from that source. Where 
milk is produced on neighboring farms and delivered 
immediately to the consumer, there is little danger. 
The same is true also in the case of ordinary foods 
furnished direct to the consumer. But where large 
populations gather, there is serious danger in driven 
wells, and water for use must be brought in from 


82 


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some source entirely free from danger and the water 
must be constantly inspected to see that no con¬ 
tamination occurs. 

There is serious danger to the consumers when 
milk, a day or two old, comes hundreds of miles, 
very often, from places which are filthy. Close in¬ 
spection has, therefore, been provided to see that 
milk is produced under sanitary conditions and that 
it is shipped without delay to market in the most 
sanitary manner possible. Danger to babies from 
impure milk has been so great that special milk sta¬ 
tions haVe been provided so that absolutely pure 
milk may be secured for them. 

In the case of foods also, there is very great dan¬ 
ger of impurities unless the most sanitary care is 
exercised. A second danger arises from the use 
of chemicals to preserve foods. Foods are often 
adulterated with substances which might have a bad 
effect upon health. Close inspection is, therefore, 
provided to prevent adulterated and unsanitary foods 
from being sold. It is quite commonly required of 
food dealers that foodstuffs be carefully protected in 
stores and markets. Poisonous adulterations and 
preservatives are prohibited by law and men are pun¬ 
ished for disobeying. 

Quarantine.—The health authorities have large 
powers to prevent the spread of contagious disease 
when once started. The usual method of prevention 
is by quarantining. Rules for such quarantining may 
be partly or rigidly enforced. Thus, patients having 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


83 


chickenpox, a disease which is contagious but not 
usually dangerous, are quarantined but other per¬ 
sons may pass in and out of the premises; but in the 
case of smallpox, patients are removed to special 
quarantine places and no one but the physicians and 
nurses are permitted to enter. 

Vaccination.—Vaccination of school children 
against smallpox is required in many states and 
health authorities generally have the right to re¬ 
quire such vaccination whenever there is danger. 
Vaccination against other diseases is sometimes pro¬ 
vided but as yet is not generally required. 

Medical Inspection of Schools.—Very close atten¬ 
tion should be given to the health of children in 
schools to prevent the spread of disease. In some 
cities there is constant inspection. If a child shows 
any symptoms of illness, the teacher immediately re¬ 
fers the case to the school physician and if the child 
is found to have a contagious disease, immediate steps 
are taken to prevent its spread. The school offers 
such opportunities to spread disease that quick action 
m the detection of disease is always necessary. 

Sanitary Measures.—There are many other meth¬ 
ods of preventing the spread of disease coming 
into common use. Almost everywhere the use 
of the common drinking cup is forbidden. Likewise, 
the use of the common towel is being prohibited 
because of the danger of transmitting skin diseases. 
Regulation of the sanitary condition of railroad cars, 
street railway cars, and sleeping rooms in hotels is 


84 


OUR AMERICA 


rapidly extending, not only to promote the conve¬ 
nience of the people who use them, but to prevent the 
spread of disease. Methods of dust prevention are 
also being employed extensively because it is recog¬ 
nized that dust is a carrier of disease, particularly 
street dust which may carry germs gathered from 
the refuse of the sidewalks and streets. 

Destroying the Fly and Mosquito.—One of the 
most important campaigns for disease prevention 
has been the movement known as “swat the fly.” 
The fly has been discovered to be a means of scatter¬ 
ing disease and attempts are being made in the early 
spring to kill them off and to remove the breeding 
conditions. In some places a like campaign has been 
made against mosquitoes—the mosquito being the 
agent scattering such serious diseases as malaria and 
yellow fever. The work of Colonel Gorgas at Pan¬ 
ama in destroying mosquitoes and their breeding 
places and in establishing sanitary conditions, made 
possible the digging of the Panama Canal. The place 
which had previously been a pest hole of disease be¬ 
came, under his direction, as sanitary and healthful 
as a temperate region. 

Diseases Caused by Unhealthy Occupations.— 
Close attention is being given by the people through 
their health authorities to the study of disease 
caused by working in certain occupations. There 
are many trades carried on in places which are un¬ 
sanitary. There are many occupations which it is 
almost certain death to follow for any great length of 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


85 


time as they are now conducted. It was discovered 
some years ago that the manufacture of phosphorus 
matches caused the workers to be affected with what 
was known as ‘‘phossy jaw/’ a disease which even¬ 
tually resulted in death. The manufacture of such 
matches has been recently prohibited. 

There are, also, many occupations, known as dusty 
trades, in which men take into their system con¬ 
stantly dust and fumes which in many cases result 
in diseases which are often fatal. To prevent these 
conditions and many others, health authorities and 
other inspectors make investigation of the effect of 
various conditions upon the human system, and of 
means of preventing such conditions in factories and 
workshops. It is easy enough to prevent dust and 
fumes when it is discovered that they are dangerous. 
No one knows how many thousands of people have 
suffered unnecessarily from such causes. We do know 
that thousands of people have died from tuberculosis 
caused by inhaling dust which has affected the lungs. 

Hospitals and Asylums.—From the list of meas¬ 
ures taken by the people to prevent diseases, it is 
apparent that some of the people’s best work is in 
that line. Many cities and towns provide hospitals for 
the cure of diseases, including tuberculosis hospitals 
where patients suffering from consumption are 
cared for, and inebriate asylums where patients 
suffering from the drink habit are cured. City hos¬ 
pitals are provided for the cure of the sick and the 
injured, but in general the cure of diseases has been 


86 


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left to the individuals and the physicians. The peo¬ 
ple, however, have made provision so that even in 
this matter the individuals are protected. No one is 
permitted to practise medicine unless he is qualified. 
People believe that health is too precious to be left 
to quacks. No one, in most states, may engage in 
dentistry, or in optical work, or in nursing, or prac¬ 
tically in any form of practise involving medicine or 
intended to cure diseases, unless he shows that he is 
qualified and receives a license from the state. 

The Result of Health Work.—This wide range of 
health activities suggests the question: ‘‘What is it 
accomplishing? Have we had results from it so far 
which should cause us to hope?'’ From many sec¬ 
tions of the country we have positive proof as shown 
in the death returns. For instance, from 1900 to 
1913 the average deaths per thousand of population 
decreased three and five-tenths per cent, among a 
population of sixty-three million included in the area 
from which figures were gathered. This is the best 
evidence of the total results of health work. Given 
in terms of people saved, it means that if the death 
rate had been the same in 1913 as in 1900, two hun¬ 
dred and twenty-one thousand more people would 
have died in that year. As a result of the practical 
application of hygiene the death rate has decreased 
both in the country districts and in cities. It has been 
more marked in the cities where better sanitary con¬ 
ditions and stricter health enforcement have reduced 
a very high death rate to a death rate which is only 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


87 


a little greater, on the average, than that for the rural 
districts. The average death rate in cities for each 
year from 1901 to 1905, was seventeen and four-tenths 
per thousand, while in 1913 the rate was fifteen per 
thousand. The death rate in the rural districts was 
fourteen and one-tenth per thousand in the years from 
1901 to 1905, and twelve and seven-tenths per thou¬ 
sand in 1913. 

Although much good work has been accomplished, 
there is much yet to be done. Professor Irving 
Fisher of Yale University estimated in 1911 that there 
are six hundred thirty thousand preventable deaths 
every year in this country and that there are three 
million persons at all times on the sick list, about 
seven hundred and fifty thousand of whom are work¬ 
ers. He estimates that this sickness costs five hundred 
million dollars in loss of wages and that five hundred 
million dollars are spent for medicines. One-half of 
this total loss is preventable. 

The Part of Nation, State and Locality in Health 
Protection.—The carrying on of health work is con¬ 
ducted through the various governments from the 
township to nation. The principal work is being 
done by states and cities. Each state has a health 
board or health officer to look after the enforce¬ 
ment of the state health laws and to aid cities, towns 
and communities in the prevention of disease. Every 
city and large town has its health officer or health 
board, invested with proper power in enforcing all 
laws and regulations relating to health. In some 


88 


OUR AMERICA 


states, there are health officers looking after the health 
of the rural communities. The nation itself does not 
have great power in health matters and it does its 
most effective work in studying diseases and giving 
information concerning their prevention. The United 
States Public Health Service does invaluable work in 
this connection. The experts from this bureau aid 
states and cities in solving their health problems. The 
United States health authorities also have power to 
control matters affecting public health in the District 
of Columbia and in the harbors and on the ’ Great 
Lakes. The greater efficiency of the United States 
Health Service has often caused the states to invite 
its aid in fighting disease. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Make a list of all the local and state officials in your 
state who deal with public health questions. 

If a nuisance is allowed to exist on a neighboring prop¬ 
erty, what steps could you take to have it removed? 

Find from the local health officials what are the quar¬ 
antine regulations of your community. Get copies of 
notices posted on quarantined premises. 

What reasons can you give for greater unhealthfulness 
of cities? 

Why is the death rate of the country so nearly that of 
the cities when health conditions should be so much 
better in the country? 

What does it cost us to be sick? 

What provision is made in your school for medical 
examination? 

Are health regulations well enforced in your commu¬ 
nity? 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


89 


The death rate in the rural districts is about thirteen per 
thousand. What would be the total number of deaths in 
the rural district using the figures shown in Chapter V? 
What would be the total number of deaths in the cities at 
the average rate of fifteen per thousand? 

If by improved health work the rate should be reduced 
three per thousand, what would be the total lives saved in 
the country? In the city? 

Name the methods of disease prevention which you know 
about. 

What are the principal dangers to the food supply? 
Water supply? Milk supply? 

Several states have passed laws requiring bed sheets in 
hotels to be long enough entirely to cover the mattress and 
turn back three feet over the quilts. Discuss the impor¬ 
tance of these laws as sanitary measures. 

Give reasons for the regulation of factories to require 
ventilation and methods of dust prevention. 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that all children should be vaccinated before 
coming to school. 

Resolved that provision should be made to examine 
the health of every child in school, including eyesight and 
teeth. 

Resolved that every factory in which men work should 
be investigated by health experts and be approved by 
them as to sanitation, ventilation and lighting. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Godfrey, The Health of the City. 

Hoag and Terman, Health Work in the Schools. 
Harris, Health on the Farm. 


90 


OUR AMERICA 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

United States Public Health Service. 

State Board of Health. 

City Board of Health or Health Officer. 

Other Local Health Authorities. 

American Medical Association. 

American Public Health Association. 

American Association for Labor Legislation (for 
Health in Factories). 


CHAPTER VIII 


EDUCATION 

The people of the United States have always been 
very strong in their support of education. It will 
be remembered that in Massachusetts, within a very 
few years after the founding of the colony, Harvard 
University was established. Even in those early 
times, schools and the means of instruction were 
quite generally provided in some colonies, the expec¬ 
tation being that through education a virtuous lot 
of people would be secured. 

Education Always Supported in This Country.— 
When the people took control of their own affairs 
in the revolution, it became evident that every per¬ 
son who had a voice in the management of public 
affairs should be educated sufficiently to help handle 
affairs intelligently. Those states which gave every 
man over twenty-one years of age the right to vote 
soon found that each of the voters must be edu¬ 
cated since each had a voice in affairs. The consti¬ 
tution of Massachusetts which was adopted in 1780 
declared that: 

‘‘Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, dif¬ 
fused generally among the body of the people, being 
necessary for the preservation of their rights and 
91 


92 


OUR AMERICA 


liberties; and as these depend on spreading the op¬ 
portunities and advantages of education in the va¬ 
rious parts of the country, and among the different 
orders of the people, it shall be the duty of legisla¬ 
tures and magistrates, in all future periods of this 
commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature 
and the sciences, and all seminaries of them; espe¬ 
cially the university at Cambridge, public schools 
and grammar schools in the towns; to encourage 
private societies and public institutions, rewards and 
immunities, for the promotion of agriculture, arts, 
sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures.” 

Present Extent of Education.—Other states fol¬ 
lowed with similar declarations, but it was not until 
the middle of the last century that free schools be¬ 
came quite general. To-day, however, every state 
in the Union provides free elementary schools. Most 
of the states provide high schools and all of them 
either have state universities or are amply provided 
with privately managed colleges and universities. 
Every state in the Union except three, now, (1916) 
compel children to attend the school from the time 
they are eight until they are twelve or fourteen, and 
in some cases until they are sixteen years of age. 

Purposes of Education.—It is recognized that edu¬ 
cation should do two things: first, it should equip 
the individual with power to take care of himself, 
to earn a living and to live with the fullest enjoyment 
possible; second, it should train every one to perform 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


93 


the duties of citizenship, that is, to help manage the 
people’s affairs with intelligence. 

The people as a whole want the latter result but 
it is recognized that no one can be a good citizen 
unless he is first able to take care of himself. If 
education were a matter solely of benefit to the 
individual, the people would not care to spend their 
money to support it, but the education of each is so 
essential to the welfare of all, that schools have come 
to be looked upon as necessary among people who 
govern themselves. 

Education Must Be Universal.—It is recognized, 
too, that education must be universal. No one would 
justify the support of a school by all of the people 
to educate a few. Any scheme of schools which we 
set up must, therefore, aim to give the best kind of 
an education possible to every person in the state. 
We should provide that kind of education, there¬ 
fore, by which all o-f the people may profit. And if 
we can not at once provide all kinds of education 
suited to all kinds of people, we should provide that 
education which reaches the largest possible number. 

Elementary Education.—The first kind of educa¬ 
tion that we should support, therefore, is elementary 
education, meaning that period of education from 
six years of age to fourteen or sixteen. We compel 
everybody to go to school during the years from 
eight to fourteen. Practically every one will have 
from now' on an elementary education. Our duty 



t 





THE ELEMENTS QF CIVICS 


95 


cars are elected and what the principal duties of the 
various officials are; especially, he should learn his 
own duties as a young citizen. 

Higher Education.—At fourteen years of age, 
some of the children may choose to go to high 
school, where an education broader in scope is se¬ 
cured. A part of those who go to high school may 
choose to go on to the college and the university 
in order to get a still broader education. From the 
elementary school to the very highest form of edu¬ 
cation the chance is thus given to any person who 
has the ability to master the courses. 

Vocational Education.—At fourteen years of age, 
however, many young people need to prepare for 
actual work. Some will actually go to work at four¬ 
teen without preparation, but such a course is un¬ 
fortunate, for the person who thus goes to work 
unprepared does not often get into a position in 
which he can prepare himself for anything better. 
Most of the positions which boys and girls take at 
fourteen are ‘‘blind alley jobs,” that is, jobs which 
have no future in them. 

To meet the needs of boys and girls who wish to 
prepare for work, many of the states provide voca¬ 
tional schools where they may study simple trades 
and occupations and where they may prepare to be¬ 
gin the study of the more skilled trades and occu¬ 
pations. Many schools provide regular instruction 
in trades, agriculture, business and home-making so 
that any person desiring to fill such occupations may 


96 


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prepare, thoroughly, for them. Likewise, when the 
boy or girl has graduated from high school or from 
college, he may desire to prepare for such fields as 
law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy or engineering. 
Practically all of the states already provide the 
means for that kind of education at public expense. 

Part-Time Schools.—Recognizing that some chil¬ 
dren may for one cause or another have left school 
at fourteen without any preparation for work, the 
schools are beginning to provide part-time courses so 
that any youth who has gone to work may come back 
a few hours a day or a few hours a week and get 
further instruction. He may thus learn while con¬ 
tinuing to earn. In many cases, it is so arranged 
that boys work in a shop a week and come back the 
next week to school. Sometimes, they work a day 
in each place—the boy who is in school to-day being 
in the shop to-morrow. 

The education thus given is of two kinds. Those 
who have found a suitable occupation may desire 
instruction which will help them to learn thoroughly 
that occupation. A boy working in a machine shop 
could thus learn, with the aid of the school, to be 
a thorough machinist. The second kind of educa¬ 
tion is for those who are not in a kind of occupation 
which is suitable for them to follow as a life-work. 
An elevator boy, for instance, would not want to 
study the operation of the elevator because such a 
process is so simple that it is mastered in a short 
time. He would want education which would pre- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


97 


pare him to study some occupation which he could 
take up as a profitable life-work. 

In some cases part-time education is carried on in 
the evening, but this is more specially for grown 
workers who want to study matters connected with 
their trades. For young workers, part-time educa¬ 
tion is usually organized so that the boys and girls 
are given time enough off during their daily work 
to get this instruction. 

Extension and Correspondence.—But many people 
who have left school can not come back to the school. 
Whatever education they get after leaving must be 
secured outside. For these, nearly every state in 
the Union provides some form of work known as 
extension work. The farmer and the farmer’s wife 
are thus supplied with information and material from 
which they may study agriculture and home work. 
Lecturers from the extension centers visit all parts 
of the state and talk with the people upon the things 
they want to know. County agents of agriculture 
and extension workers go out upon the farms at the 
request of farmers to help them study problems of 
the soil and of crops and animals. Such help is given 
to workers in many other lines of activity. It is pos¬ 
sible also for a person residing in any part of the 
state to secure a college education at home through 
the extension division which sends out regular les¬ 
son papers to guide the student in his studies. Writ¬ 
ten reports are made to the university. 

Public Library.—The public library, which is or- 


98 


OUR AMERICA 


ganized to provide materials for reading and study, 
affords another channel by which people continue 
their education after they have left school. It is of 
great value to the graduate of the elementary or 
vocational school and also to the college graduate. 
By means of the library any person can continue his 
education in any line of work and unless a person 
does continue his education through constant read¬ 
ing of material that is worth while, his early edu¬ 
cation will not have amounted to very much. 

Complete System Provided.—So we find provided 
in many states a complete system of education by 
which all persons are given the elements of knowl¬ 
edge and by which they are enabled to continue 
their education throughout life. The means are pro¬ 
vided, and it is entirely within the power of the indi¬ 
viduals to get as much or as little as they desire. 
We compel all people to take the elementary courses 
because we believe that that much is essential for 
their welfare and for the benefit of the people as a 
whole. It may be that we ought to compel further 
studies. Some states are already compelling boys 
who go to work to come back a few hours a week 
until they are sixteen years of age. Others are con¬ 
sidering the matter of extending the age limit to 
eighteen years. How far we may extend the period 
of compulsory education is a matter to be decided 
as time goes on. 

The Management and Control of Education.—The 
management and control of education is left entirely 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


99 


in the hands of the state which in turn puts duties 
upon the cities, towns, counties and townships. In 
every state there is an educational officer, usually 
known as the state superintendent of public instruc¬ 
tion, the commissioner of education or commission¬ 
er of common schools, who is in most states elected 
by the people. He has general supervision over the 
schools and in some cases has much power to compel 
them to keep up to certain standards. 

State Board of Education.—A number of states 
have a state board of education. Some states 
make their state superintendent an officer of this 
board. New York, New Jersey and Massachusetts 
put the board in complete control of the state’s part 
in education and this board selects the commissioner 
of education. The state board in several states has 
very little to do with education, but merely looks 
after state educational funds. 

City Schools.—In the cities, schools are usually 
conducted by boards separate from the rest of the 
city government. These boards attend to the busi¬ 
ness affairs of the schools and appoint a superintend¬ 
ent, who under their general direction carries on the 
educational work. A few cities have provided for a 
business director who looks after the business affairs 
of the schools. 

County Superintendent.—In most of the states, 
there is also a county superintendent, who has gen¬ 
eral supervision over the schools of the county. In a 
few states the county superintendents are directly 


100 


OUR AMERICA 


responsible to the state superintendents; but in many 
states, they are not responsible except in minor mat¬ 
ters and, therefore, each does his work as he sees fit. 
They have authority, in some states, to license teach¬ 
ers, but the tendency is to put the matter of licensing 
teachers in the hands of the state board of education 
or state superintendent. 

Local School Officers.—Schools are conducted in a 
majority of the states outside of cities by local school 
officials elected by districts in which the townships 
or counties are divided. In a few states a township 
official has charge of the schools of the entire town¬ 
ship. 

Support of Education.—Schools are largely sup¬ 
ported by local taxation. The state, out of a tax 
which it levies upon all of the people of the state or 
from the interest from the funds which it has created, 
distributes the proceeds to the school districts to help 
support the schools. In those states which have pro¬ 
vided for vocational education, the state pays part of 
the cost. 

The Service of the National Government to Edu¬ 
cation.—The national government has no power con¬ 
cerning education, but it maintains the Bureau of 
Education for the purpose of studying problems and 
giving aid and advice on different phases of educa¬ 
tion. In this way, it has done a great work in pro¬ 
moting better methods of instruction and in solving 
important problems. 

The national government has been of great service 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


101 


to education through the grant of lands and money. 
These grants of land began in the very early years 
of the government. The national government owned 
vast areas of land, and it gave a certain section in 
each state for the benefit of common schools. Grants 
of land for various purposes have been given from 
time to time and the total has reached many million 
dollars. Most of the permanent school funds of the 
states have been built up from the sales of land 
granted by the federal government or from moneys 
directly given by the nation. 

The whole scheme of agricultural education has 
been largely due to federal aid. The famous Morrill 
Act of 1862 gave each state a certain amount of land 
for the building of an agricultural and mechanical 
college. As a result of these grants an agricultural 
and mechanical arts college has been established in 
every state in the Union. In 1887 the federal govern¬ 
ment gave additional grants of land and money to car¬ 
ry on agricultural experiment work and as a result 
agricultural experiment stations have been established 
in all the states. More recently, large grants of 
money have been given to the states to help carry on 
extension work for the benefit of agriculture. It is 
further proposed that the national government shall 
give aid for the development of vocational schools in 
trades and industries and agriculture. Nearly all of 
the money and lands given by the federal govern¬ 
ment have been given outright to the states to handle 
as they please. It is recognized of late that such 


102 


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an arrangement is a partnership, and the federal gov- 
ernment is providing that the states shall spend at 
least an equal amount, and that they shall conduct 
the work in an approved way in order to get federal 
aid. 

Service of State and National Departments.—In 
addition to providing for a system of education calcu¬ 
lated to serve all men, the state and national govern¬ 
ments perform splendid educational service through 
many of their departments. In fact many of the de¬ 
partments of both state and national government 
look upon this service as their main object. 

Road Investigations.—We have already seen how 
the United States Bureau of Roads is engaged con¬ 
stantly in studying the best method of road building 
and maintenance and in giving out the knowledge 
thus gained to the people of the country to aid them 
in their road problems. We are beginning to look 
to this bureau for expert guidance in road matters. 
The state highway departments are doing the same 
kind of service in a more limited way, but altogether 
these educational services are tending to put road 
building on a scientific basis. 

Health Service.—The United States Health Service 
is doing splendid work in helping to solve the health 
problems of the nation through education. State 
boards of health were originally organized to do edu¬ 
cational work. These boards are training the local 
health officers and are broadening the knowledge of 
public health among the people. By means of bul- 



Studyinfj Domestic Science 



Studying ARrici^Jture 






























< -.‘V, 

I 
i 




A Consolidated School 




















THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


103 


letins, lectures, institutes and conferences, the 
newest and best methods of disease prevention and 
of sanitary control are brought to the attention of 
local officers and of the people. 

Children’s Care.—^The Children’s Bureau in Wash¬ 
ington is purely educational in its character. It has 
not a single power of law enforcement. It merely 
studies the matters of child protection and care and 
gives information out to the country to guide the 
people in the care of infants and in the protection of 
children. Expert service in this line will prove of 
great benefit. When all people are intelligently in¬ 
formed, children will be better cared for and trained. 
The large losses of lives of babies demand the most 
intelligent study and the most practical application of 
the result. State boards of health and other child¬ 
caring agencies are doing a similar work in the states. 

Agricultural Investigation.—The Department of 
Agriculture is almost wholly devoted to the study and 
spreading of information relating to agriculture, for¬ 
estry and animal husbandry. Their work means hun¬ 
dreds of millions of dollars every year to the farmers 
in increased production and in better rural conditions. 
Its work in the states is carried on through the agri¬ 
cultural colleges and experiment stations.^ 

I»abor Investigation.—The Department of Labor 
is doing a similar service for labor and the conditions 
of workers. It studies actual conditions and gives 
the information for the guidance of the public. State 
departments of labor, factory inspection and indus- 


104 


OUR AMERICA 


trial boards are the states’ agencies in doing this 
same work. One of their greatest services is in edu¬ 
cation for accident prevention. 

Commercial Investigation.—^The Department of 
Commerce aids the business men of the country by 
constant study of trade conditions, foreign markets, 
methods of doing business, and by giving this in¬ 
formation freely to the public. 

Tests and Experiments.—The educational work of 
the United States Bureau of Standards is another of 
the ways in which the people^s government seeks to 
discover knowledge which will serve the people. 
Tests are made by this bureau in almost every phase 
of scientific work. Delicate apparatus fix the stand¬ 
ards for weights and test mate<rials of all kinds. 
Many of the great discoveries in physics and espe¬ 
cially electricity are due to the work of this bureau. 
Some state departments and state universities are 
doing similar work on a smaller scale. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

What are the provisions of your state constitution in 
regard to education? 

Outline the system of education in your community 
and state, including elementary schools, high schools, 
vocational schools, colleges, extension work and libraries. 

Are there any arrangements in your community by 
which children work a part of the time and come back 
to the school a part of the time to get education in the 
line of work in which they are engaged? 

' What provisions are made for compulsory education 
in your state? 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


105 


Are young workers under sixteen compelled to return 
to the schools for any instruction? 

What is the value of correspondence study? 

Show the advantages of the county agent system by 
which an expert in agriculture is at the call of the farm¬ 
ers to advise with them. 

What are the principal objects of education? 

What is the object of vocational education? 

Show how the system of state supervision and state 
aid makes better schools. 

What difference should there be between the schools 
of the city and the schools of the country? 

How does the library fit in as a part of the educational 
system ? 

Write to the state superintendent of public instruction or 
commissioner of education at the state capital and ask for 
a copy of the school laws. 

What connection should there be between the work of 
your school and the work of the community? 

Do the schools prepare young folks for actual work? 

What is the advantage of having facilities to continue 
one’s education after leaving school? 

Do the workers whom you know read books relating to 
the occupations in which they are engaged? 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that education should be made compulsory 
up to seventeen years of age. 

Resolved that all persons under eighteen years who 
have gone to work should be compelled to return to 
school for at least six hours a week. 

Resolved that vocational education should be provided 
at public expense to meet the needs of all kinds of people. 


106 


OUR AMERICA 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Lapp and Mote, Learning to Earn. 

Betts and Hall, Better Rural Schools. 

Dewey, Schools of Tomorrow. 

U. S. Commissioner of Education, Annual Reports. 
(Free.) 

School laws of your state. 

Report of State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U. S. Bureau of Education. 

State Superintendent of Public Instruction or Commis¬ 
sioner of Education. 

County Superintendent of Schools. 

National Education Association. 

National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu- 
cation. 

American Home Economics Association- 


CHAPTER IX 


SOME CITY PROBLEMS 

The growth of cities has been the most striking 
fact of the last half century. In 1850 there were only 
12.49 per cent, of the people living in the cities of 
more than eight thousand population. In 1860 the 
percentage had risen to 16.13 per cent. In 1870 there 
were 20.93 per cent.; in 1880, 22.57 per cent.; in 18S0 
29.20 per cent.; in 1900, 33.10 per cent.; and in 1910 
38.8 per cent. Everywhere in the world, among civil¬ 
ized people, the tendency is the same; a larger and 
larger percentage of the people find their homes in 
the city. Probably the percentage of city dwellers 
will increase for many years until perhaps the prob¬ 
lem of producing enough foodstuffs will cause people 
to turn back to the country to get a living. 

Growth of Cities.—The increase in the city popula¬ 
tion, as a whole, has been steady but many cities have 
had phenomenal increases and some have grown up 
in a very brief time. Gary, Indiana, rose from sand 
piles in 1905 to a city of fifty-five thousand three hun¬ 
dred seventy-eight in 1920. Oklahoma City increased 
from ten thousand and thirty-seven in 1900 to ninety- 
one thousand two hundred fifty-eight in 1920, and 
many other cities increased almost as fast. The cities 
107 


108 


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of Chicago and New York, with their enormous pop¬ 
ulations, increased 23.6 per cent, and 17.9 per cent, 
respectively from 1900 to 1920. 

Problems of City Growth.—This rapid growth of 
cities has brought important problems to the front. 

First, there is the problem of circulation—the 
planning and building of streets and alleys so that 
there may be free traffic. Streets wide enough to 
handle a small traffic, when called upon to handle 
twice that traffic, must be widened, more streets must 
be opened, or the traffic diverted to other streets. 
The problem of getting food and other materials 
easily from the country requires that thoroughfares 
be opened connecting with the main highways leading 
into the country. Without such thoroughfares every 
load of goods brought into a large city must travel 
long distances to get to market. 

Second, a forecast of the future growth of the city 
must be made. Every new addition of territory to a 
city should be subject to control by the city so that 
narrow, crooked, disjointed streets may be avoided. 
In many cities, the separate real estate additions show 
their boundaries by jogs in the street where the real 
estate owners have done as they pleased in planning 
streets, without reference to the streets of the city, 
just to satisfy their greed in getting the largest num^ 
ber of city lots possible from their land. 

Planning Cities.—The city of Washington is our 
model city from the standpoint of planning. It 
is well that this is so because it is the one city 



Bad Houses 
















Plan of Washington, D. C, as it will be when completed 













THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


109 


which all the people of the country claim as their 
own. The plan is due to George Washington who 
was president when the city was laid out. He called 
to his aid General L’Enfant a French engineer who 
had served with Washington in the Revolution. 
L’Enfant visited the cities of Europe to study their 
plans. He laid out a city which in the arrangements 
of its streets, parks and spaces for public buildings is 
ideal. He planned for the future. His plan was on 



a great enough scale to provide for a city many times 
larger than any city then existing in this country and 
it will probably be adequate for the future growth of 
the city. 

Nearly every city is laid out on the plan of a 
checker-board. Streets cross one another at right 
angles and there are few diagonal streets. The diffi- 
















no 


OUR AMERICA 


culties of this arrangement in getting in and out of 
the city are very great as will be seen in the diagram. 

Let us suppose that the main business section of 
the city is in the center of the diagram. It would be 
in a direct line over streets A to B or C to D to the 
center, but if a person desired to go from any point 
such as X or Y to the center he would have to travel 
in every case a long distance to get to a street lead¬ 
ing to the center. 

For convenience in travel and carrying goods, the 
ideal city plan is to take the checker-board as in the 
diagram above and lay upon it diagonal streets like 
the spokes of a wheel. Thus: 



B 


The center in this arrangement of streets can be 
easily reached by means of the four streets at right 
angles and the four diagonal streets. 













THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


111 


Very few cities have such a plan. The older cities 
in the eastern states are generally laid out irregularly 
with crooked streets or else on the checker-board plan 
following the example of Philadelphia which was laid 
out in that form by William Penn. Indianapolis is 
one of the best examples of a proper arrangement of 
main streets, having a plan similar to the last dia¬ 
gram with a circle in the center. 

Many large cities which followed the checker-board 
plan have found it necessary to cut new streets at 
immense cost to enable the business of the city to 
be done. The proposed plans of several great cities, 
notably Chicago and Philadelphia, provide for new 
diagonal streets. To cut such streets where expensive 
buildings have already been built is an immense and 
costly task, yet each year that it is postponed increases 
the cost. 

Railroads and Terminals.—The planning of cities 
for convenience includes the arrangements, for rail¬ 
roads and interurban railroads entering the city, and 
the building of passenger stations and freight ter¬ 
minals. Many cities have not given attention to this 
matter and yet it is of the greatest importance that 
the railroads be most conveniently arranged for quick 
and cheap transportation of people and goods. The 
well planned city makes provision for railroads to 
enter at certain convenient places. A 'central pas¬ 
senger station is provided with ample facilities to 
handle all the passengers and yards sufficient to 
enable cars and trains to be handled without delay. 


112 


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A clumsy arrangement by which even a few minutes 
are lost each day by passengers means a tremendous 
total for all passengers coming into and going out 
of a city. 

Freight and express terminals are equally im¬ 
portant. If the arrangements are imperfect and 
clumsy, expense is added to every car of goods com¬ 
ing into and going out of the city. This expense is a 
tax. New Orleans has recently built a great freight 
terminal. Before it was built, it cost considerably 
more to handle a car of freight in or out of the city 
than it does now. 

It is the duty of every city to plan for such ter¬ 
minals. Delays mean added cost. Not to make such 
arrangements means that the city taxes its people 
for every extra dollar of cost necessary to handle 
goods or people in and out of the city. The same 
statements apply also with reference to the building 
of wharves for water traffic in all cities having a 
harbor. 

Providing for Street Traffic.—Another necessity in 
planning is to provide for street traffic with the great¬ 
est ease and least expense. In the large cities this 
is a problem of building subways, elevated roads, and 
providing for suburban train service. In the smaller 
cities, it means the extension of street-car lines and 
the routing of the cars so as to bring every one within 
reach of the principal parts of the city and prevent 
crowding on any street. Every means possible 
should be used to make it easy and cheap for people 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


113 


to get about, as well as to come into and go out of 
the city. 

Making Cities Beautiful.—The modern plans of 
the cities have also as an object the beautifying of 
the cities and the convenient grouping of the public 
buildings. Several cities have developed what is 
known as the civic center where are grouped the city 
hall, public library, court-house and other government 
buildings. Cleveland, San Francisco and Denver 
have begun the building of such a center while many 
cities have plans which look forward to such an 
arrangement. The plans for beautifying the city 
provide, also, for parks, boulevards, playgrounds and 
small open spaces. 

Progressive cities are reaching out in advance of 
growth and buying great tracts of land which can be 
turned into parks and playgrounds. The streams in 
and about many cities are being beautified by placing 
boulevards and parks along their banks. The rail¬ 
road entrances which are frequently the most un¬ 
sightly parts of our cities, are being parked so as to 
give a pleasant impression. Ugly buildings are being 
bought and torn down and the open spaces are turned 
into parks. Mulberry Bend, one of the worst con¬ 
gested districts in New York where nothing but 
shabby tenements existed, was bought a few years 
ago by the city. The buildings were torn down and 
the place is now a beautiful spot where the people 
of that crowded section may have a breathing space. 
Every city which tries to serve its people is remov- 


114 


OUR AMERICA 


ing such eyesores and letting a beauty spot take their 
place. 

The expense of such work has always been a great 
drawback. To buy such valuable property as is often 
necessary takes vast sums of money. The cities have 
been kept from extensive work of this sort on ac¬ 
count of the expense. But recently a plan known as 
‘‘excess condemnation’' has been put into use in 
several cities. By this plan the city buys up land 
adjoining that which it intends to retain and when 
the value has been increased by improvement, the 
extra land is sold at a profit. The entire cost of 
building of parks and boulevards may often be paid 
in this way without cost to the city. 

Bill-Boards and Height of Buildings.—Cities are 
also attempting to improve their appearance by pro¬ 
hibiting unsightly bill-boards and by requiring some 
uinformity in building lines so that the appearance of 
a street shall not be “straggly.” The height of build¬ 
ings is limited in some cities. Monument Circle in 
Indianapolis is protected from unsightly high build¬ 
ings by a requirement that no building on the Circle 
shall be more than two hundred feet high. New 
York and Chicago and other cities have ordinances 
limiting the height of buildings. 

Municipal Art.—A few cities are looking to artistic 
decoration of the streets and public buildings. 
Artistic street lighting, street signs, monuments and 
other works are receiving attention. In several cities 
no monument or other work of art is allowed to be 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


115 


set up unless it is approved by a board usually known 
as an art commission. 

Housing.—All of the work of city planning has for 
its object the furnishing of a fitting place for the 
homes of the people. The crowding of people makes 
living more difficult and dangerous and the city must 
see that as far as possible such evils and dangers of 
city life are removed. 

By a scheme of city planning a great deal of the 
congestion of a city is removed. When it is possible 
for people to get to their work quickly and cheaply 
they can live farther out and in places around which 
there is plenty of light, air and space. In the larger 
cities, however, the very best means of traffic can not 
remove the congestion. Pressure for space crowds 
the people together. Several houses are built on the 
space where one stood before; several families live 
in the same house; many people are often found liv¬ 
ing in a single room. The tenement comes and 
people live tier above tier in the narrow rooms, with¬ 
out sunlight or sufficient air. Rents rise and more 
people crowd into single rooms in order to divide the 
expense. Diseases spread and children, especially, 
suffer. 

Conditions like those described above exist in some 
parts of nearly every city. But the people of cities 
are beginning to see the dangers of letting human 
beings live in that way. People living under such 
conditions, whether through ignorance or necessity, 
are unable to protect themselves, and all of the people 


116 


OUR AMERICA 


join in the common cause of protecting them. Pro¬ 
gressive cities are beginning to require that plenty 
of air, light and space be provided when buildings 
are being erected and they are also beginning to re¬ 
quire that light and air be given an opportunity to 
get into the dark places. Buildings are being re¬ 
modeled to admit light and air. Better sanitary con¬ 
ditions are being required, and although the people 
are often too closely crowded for comfort, such con¬ 
ditions are becoming far better. 

Some cities are also building small homes in the 
convenient open country where street-car service is 
available. These places may be rented at small cost 
and offer a chance for good living conditions for those 
who take advantage of them. 

Playgrounds.—The crowded city causes another 
problem to arise: that of giving the children a chance 
to play. Those who have grown up in the country 
have little idea what it means to be a child in the city 
where the busy street or a narrow back yard are the 
only playgrounds. Children must have a chance for 
wholesome play if they are to develop properly. The 
cities have only lately recognized this fact and have 
begun to do justice in this respect to the children. 

In the country ample playgrounds surround each 
schoolhouse, but in the cities there are many school 
buildings without playgrounds. Whenever possible, 
however, the new building plans provide for play¬ 
grounds with apparatus for many kinds of play. The 
buildings generally include, also, gymnasiums and 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


117 


swimming pools so that play may be continued the 
year round. Progressive cities are also buying up 
vacant lots and making playgrounds of them in the 
crowded parts of the city. Some cities have an ex¬ 
tensive system of small parks within reach of all the 
people where, besides ample space for individual play, 
there are fields for baseball, basket ball, football and 
other outdoor sports. Chicago is a notable example 
of the use of small parks. Almost every part of that 
city has its small park. Practically all of the people 
can reach these parks for play. The sight of thou¬ 
sands of children and grown folks in them makes 
city life look more wholesome and attractive. 

Residence Districts.—One of the newer ways in 
which the people of cities protect themselves is by 
setting off certain districts which are called residence 
districts and preventing anything but residences from 
being built there. Industries are given their place, 
also. Under such regulations, a man who builds a 
house is certain that an objectionable manufacturing 
plant, a livery stable, or garage will not be built next 
door to him. 

Markets.—Food supply is the city^s most important 
problem. Fully thirty per cent, of all that people earn 
is spent for food. How to get enough to live com¬ 
fortably is each man’s chief concern. 

We have already seen that the problem is to get 
goods from the producer to the consumer with the 
least cost. Every cent added by the cost of trans¬ 
porting, due to bad roads and poor railroad facilities. 


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makes it that much harder for the people to live com¬ 
fortably. When, to exorbitant costs of transportation 
are added the profits of the middleman, the cost of 
living is forced up considerably. The problem of 
cities is to reduce both the cost of transportation by 
furnishing the very best roads, streets and railroad 
facilities, and by providing public markets so that as 
nearly as may be, the producer and consumer may 
be brought together. 

Not more than half of the larger cities of the 
country now have public markets. Many of those 
which do have markets, have merely one central mar¬ 
ket to which all must come. Poor regulations have 
left the markets too often in the hands of the com¬ 
mission merchants and the market is merely a kind of 
store which the city supplies at small rent rather than 
an open market. 

The ideal market is a place where the actual pro¬ 
ducer comes with his products. The city of Des 
Moines which has done good work with its market 
requires each seller on the market to display a sign 
showing whether he is a producer or a huckster. 
This enables the people to deal directly with the pro¬ 
ducer and also keeps down the prices charged by 
hucksters. 

Garbage Removal.—^The large population in cities 
brings the problem of disposing of the waste. We 
have already discussed the necessity of removal of 
garbage and sewage to protect health. The people 
of a city could not live if waste were allowed to ac- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


119 


cumulate even for a short time. Garbage is disposed 
of in the following ways: reduction, burning, feed¬ 
ing to swine, dumping on land, dumping in water, 
burying. 

The most approved method of disposal is by reduc¬ 
tion. The larger cities use this method quite gen¬ 
erally. In several cities contractors collect the gar¬ 
bage free and make their profit from the by-products 
of which the chief are grease and fertilizer. Many 
cities pay contractors for collection and the contract¬ 
ors make additional profit on the sale of by-products. 
In Cleveland and other cities, the city owns the re¬ 
duction plant and makes a profit for the city in its 
operation. 

Many cities burn their garbage. This disposes of 
it completely, but of course the valuable by-products 
are wasted. The steam produced by the plant is used 
in several cities to generate electric light for various 
purposes. 

Feeding garbage to swine is quite extensively re¬ 
sorted to and garbage is sometimes sold to farmers 
for this purpose. A few cities have droves of hogs 
fed on garbage. Contractors generally feed a large 
part of the garbage they collect to hogs. 

Dumping on land or in water is the favorite method 
of the small place or the place situated near water. 
This is, of course, a complete waste. Burying is also 
a complete waste besides having niany expensive 
features. 

Sewage Disposal.—Sewage disposal has usually 


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been accomplislied by the cities of this country by 
dumping into streams and bodies of water and leav¬ 
ing it to be carried away by the current or the tides. 
Cities have tried various make-shift systems in order 
to get rid of their sewage without regard to the way 
it polluted the water and affected neighboring people. 
Many cities are now experimenting with various 
methods of sewage disposal. Gradually they will find, 
as in the case of garbage, that profits can be made by 
scientific processes of disposal. 

The city of Berlin has reclaimed thousands of acres 
of poor land and made it as productive as a garden 
by the use of sewage as fertilizer. Their sewage 
farms are models of production. There is not a city 
in the country that could not profit by Berlin’s ex¬ 
perience. 

The cities which are not situated so as to discharge 
sewage into streams or which are enlightened enough 
not to do so when such an act would harm others, 
have built works for the disposal of sewage, or more 
strictly speaking, works for the purification of sewage 
from disease germs and offensive odors before it is 
discharged into streams. 

This process is one of filtration. Simple filtration 
is effected by letting the sewage run into large beds 
filled with sand and gravel. The filtration of the 
water through the layers of sand and gravel removes 
most of the solid parts and destroys most of the dis¬ 
ease germs. The purified water is then discharged 
into a stream or body of water. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


121 


The septic tank is coming into use quite exten¬ 
sively. This is a process of filtration in which chem¬ 
icals are used to destroy the disease germs. The 
methods employed in the cities of this country are 
not entirely satisfactory and efforts are being made 
to discover a method of sewage purification or dis¬ 
posal which will get rid of sewage with safety to the 
public health at the lowest possible cost and with the 
least damage to property and nuisance to people. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Make a map of your city or a near-by city showing the 
streets. 

Does the arrangement of streets permit easy and quick 
entrance to the city from the whole surrounding country? 

On the map of the city, indicate the railroads entering 
the city and the passenger stations and freight terminals. 
What improvements could be made for convenience? 

Locate the public buildings and parks and discuss their 
accessibility to the mass of people. 

What does your city do to make the city beautiful? 

What provisions are made for playgrounds? 

Are there any crowded quarters where housing condi¬ 
tions are bad? 

Describe the method employed in collecting and dis¬ 
posing of garbage. 

Describe the sewerage system. 

Do you have a public market? If so, do the producers 
actually come with their goods? 

What plan would you suggest to make it easier to mar¬ 
ket produce from producer to consumer? 

Do you have any regulation of bill-boards? 


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QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the cities should buy the land which 
would be benefited by a park or boulevard and sell the 
same when the value increases from the improvement. 

Resolved that the city should own and manage its pub¬ 
lic utilities, including waterworks, gas works, electric light 
works and street railways. 

Resolved that the city should engage in public marketing 
so as to bring the producer and consumer together. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Farwell, Village Improvement. 

Robinson, The Improvement of Towns and Cities. 
Howe, The Modern City and Its Problems. 

Chap. I “The City and Civilization.'^ 

Chap. IV “The Modern City." 

Chap. V “The American City." 

Chap. XH “The City and the Public Service Corpo¬ 
rations." 

Chap. XIII “Municipal Ownership in America." 

Chap. XV “City Planning in America." 

Chap. XVI “City Planning in Europe." 

Chap. XVHI “The City as a Social Agency." 

Chap. XIX “The Housing Problem." 

Chap. XXI “Recreation and the Problem of Leisure/^ 
McVey, The Making of a Tozvn. 

Sullivan, Markets for the People. 

Debaters' Handbook, Municipal Ownership. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

National Municipal League. 

National Conference on City Planning. 

National Housing Association. 

American Civic Association. 

Playgrounds Association of America. 

The American City. (Published monthly.) 


CHAPTER X 


SOME RURAL PROBLEMS 

We hear, on all sides, the statement that the people 
are flocking to the cities and deserting the country 
and the census figures every ten years prove the 
statement. The population of rural districts in many 
states actually decreased during the years 1900 to 
1910. Iowa actually lost one hundred fourteen thou¬ 
sand seven hundred and fifty rural dwellers, Indiana 
ninety-six thousand seven hundred and thirty-two, 
Illinois forty-three thousand five hundred and twenty, 
and Ohio fifty-seven thousand one hundred and 
eighty-five. 

Reasons for Trend Away From the Country.— 

There is more than one reason for this shifting of 
population from the country to the city. First, the 
attraction and glamour of the city induce many who 
do not see the unhappy side of city life, to become 
city dwellers. Second, the lack of practical educa¬ 
tion in the country has prevented young men from 
seeing in the business of agriculture as much promise 
as there should be for an independent life. Third, 
the invention of labor-saving machines has made it 
possible for one man to do the work of several men. 
The result has been that men do farming on a large 
123 


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scale and few are trained to take up intensive farm¬ 
ing, gardening and poultry raising; hence, they must 
seek other fields. Fourth, the lack of social advan¬ 
tages in the country compared with the city where 
men may find many opportunities for association with 
their fellows, has caused many to seek the city life. 
Fifth, the promise of reward for the successful in the 
city has been an enticing thing. The few who have 
succeeded in gaining wealth and power in the city 
have been a constant example for others to imitate. 

Dangers in Growth of Cities at Expense of the 
Country.—Whatever may be our views of the advan¬ 
tages of city life over country life or of country life 
over city life, we must recognize the fact that it is a 
serious menace if the city increases at the expense of 
the country. The city will continue to grow and the 
country must produce more and more to supply com¬ 
mon needs or else hardships will come. The country 
must, also, produce more in order that the farmers 
shall prosper as they should. 

Better Agriculture Needed.—Better agriculture is 
the crying need. We do not produce enough per 
acre of crops in this country. The average yield of 
wheat is only about fifteen bushels per acre, of corn 
twenty-seven bushels, oats thirty bushels, barley 
twenty-five bushels, rye sixteen bushels, potatoes 
ninety-seven bushels. European countries whose 
soils are naturally no better than our own and which 
have been cropped for thousands of years produce 
much more per acre than this country. Germany 



Farmers’ Co-operative Grain Elevator 






























Demonstrating to Farmers 






















THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


125 


gets twenty-eight bushels of wheat per acre and Eng¬ 
land thirty-five bushels. Germany produces two hun¬ 
dred bushels of potatoes per acre. In fact, only 
Russia is behind us in the scale of production among 
the great nations. 

Training for Better Agriculture.—The people of 
the whole country are interested in this problem of 
production of crops because the people must be fed. 
They are interested, too, because good crops mean 
prosperity for all, as well as a better country life. 
Long ago, far-seeing statesmen saw the danger of 
poor agriculture and set about to prevent bad results. 
Schools of agriculture were established. Then, state 
colleges of agriculture came as a result of aid by the 
federal government. Next the nation provided for 
experiment stations in the states where the best farm¬ 
ing methods could be tested out. These have been a 
great help in promoting the scientific study of agricul¬ 
ture. The next step was to provide for extension work 
by which the knowledge gained by experiments and 
practise could be carried to the farmer on his own 
land. The farmers saw by practical demonstration 
that the soil could produce much more if properly 
prepared and if the seed was properly selected and 
the soil properly treated. Very good results from 
these educational methods have been secured and 
hundreds of men are now engaged to inform the 
farmers of the best agricultural knowledge and prac¬ 
tise. Hundreds of counties employ an official known 
as the county agent, a man trained in scientific and 


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practical farming, who is the free counselor of the 
farmers who want his service. 

Frauds Against Farmers—Fertilizers.—The people 
have taken positive steps also to prevent fraud 
against the farmers in the sale of fertilizers, feeding 
stuffs and seeds. When soils first began to show 
signs of exhaustion, there was created a great demand 
for fertilizer. Immediately, dishonest men found a 
chance to make money by fraud. The farmer did 
not have the equipment to test his fertilizer and he 
never knew whether he had actually received honest 
fertilizers. Worthless stuff was mixed to add weight, 
and the farmers suffered. Then the people in many 
states took a hand and made provision for testing all 
fertilizers publicly. They made it a crime to sell mis¬ 
branded fertilizer, and they required that the brand 
state the materials in it. 

Feeding Stuffs.—The same conditions with refer¬ 
ence to feeding stuffs for cattle resulted in laws which 
required such materials to be branded showing 
exactly the properties of each article. Any person 
may take a sample of feeding stuffs and have it tested 
by the agricultural college or experiment station and 
if it proves false to the brand may cause the seller to 
be subject to a fine. 

Seeds.—Likewise with seeds. The farmers in pur¬ 
chasing seed, particularly grass seed, have suffered 
severe losses in the quality of seed and in the weed 
seeds often mixed with timothy and' clover. It is a 
severe loss in either case and one that can not be re- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


127 


paired. When seed does not grow the crop is lost 
for the year and when the seed of noxious weeds gets 
into the soil, permanent harm is done. Some states 
attempt to prevent these losses by requiring seed to 
be sold only after tests which show that the seeds 
will grow and that they do not contain noxious weed 
seed. 

Weed Cutting.—Further protection against losses 
is offered by laws which require the cutting of 
weeds before the seed ripens and is scattered over 
new ground. Many states require the cutting of all 
weeds on the public highway. Some require a man 
to cut Canada thistles and other bad weeds on his 
land during certain periods. 

Necessity for All to Act.—It is plain that to get 
protection in these matters of fertilizers, feeding 
stuffs, seeds and weeds, all of the people must act 
together. One man can do little against the frauds 
which are put out; and in the case of weeds, the efforts 
of one man would be futile if his neighbors allowed 
weed seed to grow and be scattered by the wind. 

Insect Pests and Animal Diseases.—Severe losses 
are suffered by the farmers through insect pests and 
animal diseases. Probably two billion dollars a year 
are lost from these causes. One man or a few men 
can not cope with such enemies. The states and the 
nation have been constantly employed in studying 
methods of prevention and have succeeded in find¬ 
ing means of preventing the worst pests and diseases. 
When a disease or pest gets started, drastic action 


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must be taken in order to stamp it out. Quarantine 
and wholesale killing of animals are often necessary 
to stamp out a disease such as the foot and mouth 
disease. Drastic action is needed, also, to stop the 
ravages of pests. In these cases, also, a few men 
would be helpless. Nothing but the power of many 
people can stamp out diseases and pests and save the 
billions of property endangered. 

Marketing Crops.—We have, thus far, been speak¬ 
ing of the problem of producing bigger and better 
crops and protecting them from losses. This is im¬ 
portant but it is equally important that means shall 
be provided for getting the crops produced into the 
hands of the consumer with the least expense and 
waste. The farmer would have little interest in pro¬ 
ducing larger crops if his profits from them were not 
increased. Some way must be found so that larger 
profits shall come to the producer and lower costs to 
the consumer. As it stands now, the producer does 
not get a fair profit and the consumer has to pay 
more than he can afford. The channels through 
which crops are carried from the producer to the con¬ 
sumer are too expensive and too many people are tak¬ 
ing toll from the proceeds. Our system of market¬ 
ing is clumsy and wasteful. Crops rot on the ground 
in the country because the price is not enough to pay 
for gathering; while a few miles away in the cities 
prices are so high for the same articles as to discour¬ 
age buying. It is not an infrequent case to find 
apple.s selling at five dollars a barrel in the city while 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


129 


the producer is not offered enough to pay him to pick 
his fruit. If foodstuffs were sold at a fair price, the 
demand would increase and take care of the surplus. 
The middleman who is interested only in profits does 
not look after the interests of the people most con¬ 
cerned—the producer and consumer—and he does 
not seek to bring about better conditions. 

Cooperation.—^To meet this condition the problem 
is being attacked from both ends. The cities are pro¬ 
viding markets and other facilities to get food direct 
to the consumer and the farmers are slowly building 
up cooperative organizations to handle their crops. 
When the two are worked out fully, we shall have 
these needed results. First, the producer will get a 
fairer share for his labor; second, the consumer will 
be able to live more comfortably on his income; and 
third, the large waste which the present clumsy meth¬ 
ods entail will be prevented. 

There are many difficulties, and cities, states and 
the nation are all studying the problem and helping 
in its solution. The fruit growers of California, 
Oregon and Washington, the dairymen of Wiscon¬ 
sin, and grain producers in several states have been 
highly successful in their cooperative marketing and 
there are many examples of similar successes. There 
are also many examples of failures and great care is 
needed to see that the plan is correct and that it is 
managed by men capable of making it a success. 

Transportation.—The problem of markets is de¬ 
pendent upon the question of roads and the cost of 


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transportation on railroads and interurbans. We 
have already seen the importance of these agencies 
in the exchange of goods. Their importance is 
simply emphasized here because of their intimate re¬ 
lation to the cost of living. When a system of roads 
radiating from a city is kept up so that goods may 
be hauled at the minimum cost per ton mile, and a 
system of city markets open to the producer is pro¬ 
vided, the problem of getting the principal articles of 
food from producer to consumer w^ill be solved. 

Rural Credits.—The last problem of the farmer to 
be discussed here is that of his banking facilities. 
Business to-day is based upon credit. “Rural credits” 
is the term applied to the banking business of the 
farmer. A business concern borroAvs money at the 
banks and as the profits come in, the money is repaid. 
This credit is necessary to him because some time 
passes between the time that goods are sold and the 
receipt of the money. Many concerns manufacture 
several months in advance of delivery. The banks 
supply the need for money to carry on the business. 

The farmer puts his own money and labor into 
preparation for a crop and waits until the harvest for 
his return. He has need for banking credit to pay 
his bills, but such credit has not been so available to 
him as it has been to the business man or the manu¬ 
facturer. He could undertake much more work and 
produce better results if he had the capital at hand. 

In the purchase of land, the farmer is seriously 
handicapped, especially in the poorer regions. There 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


131 


are sections where it is hardly possible to secure a 
small fraction of the value of the land on a mort¬ 
gage loan—yet land to-day is the most stable invest¬ 
ment. The farmer can not generally buy land because 
he is compelled to pay in many cases nearly the whole 
of the purchase price at once. His need is to have some 
sort of a credit system by which he can buy and own 
land and pay a reasonable amount per year until his 
debt is paid. European countries have provided means 
by which this may be done. We have done little thus 
far, but the states are taking steps to provide means 
of giving proper credit to farmers through banks so 
that they can finance farming operations and the pur¬ 
chase of land. The national government is taking 
steps also to establish a suitable scheme and at an 
early date this urgent need will be met by the people 
who will act together through their governments 
to do it. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

If there is a tendency in your community for the young 
folks to leave the country for the city, what are the 
reasons ? 

What is the average yield of different farm crops in 
your community? 

Has there been any improvement in the yield of farm 
crops recently, and if so, why? 

Point out the dangers to this country in the low aver¬ 
age production of farm crops. 

Why should the people, through their governments, 
take steps to improve crop yields ? 

Discuss the value of testing fertilizers, seeds, feeding 
stuffs, etc. 


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Why should or should not farmers cooperate in mar¬ 
keting their products? 

What cai^ses of failure are there in cooperative work? 

What advantage would it be to the farmer if he had 
the same opportunities for credit that the manufacturer 
has? 

Show the relation between the prosperity of the coun¬ 
try and that of the city. 

What provision is made for the testing of fertilizers in 
your state? Get a sample of the tag used as a label. 

What provision is made for the testing of feeding stuffs 
for cattle ? Get a sample of the tag used as a label. 

What is done to test seeds? 

What weeds are common on the farms in your vicinity ? 

Give all of the reasons which you can give in support 
of a law to compel all farmers to cut weeds on the farms 
and on the roadside before they go to seed. 

What insect pests damage crops in your vicinity ? What 
does your state and community do to prevent such pests ? 

Where do the farmers of your commuity market their 
crops ? 

Trace the products from the farm to the consumer. 

In many places the farmers use the parcels post to send 
products to city customers. Does that method prevail in 
your community? 

QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the farmers should organize cooperative 
organizations to sell their products and to buy their 
necessities. 

Resolved that agricultural education should be intro¬ 
duced into all country schools. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Bailey, The Country Life Movement. 

Waugh. Rural Improvement. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


133 


Coulter, Co-operation Among Farmers. 

Benson and Betts, Agriculture. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER INFORMA¬ 
TION 

United States Department of Agriculture. 

State College of Agriculture. 

State Experiment Station. 

County Agent of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER XI 


LENDING A HELPING HAND 

All persons who are able to do so are expected to 
work to earn their living. Each person must gen¬ 
erally rely upon himself for the means to live, and to 
be clothed and sheltered. There is no place for the 
person who is able-bodied and does not support him¬ 
self. Society expects every one to do his part. 

The People Take Care of the Unfortunate. —There 
are persons who, from causes which they can not help, 
are not able to take care of themselves. Some in¬ 
herit physical weakness which prevents them from 
being self-supporting; others because of accident or 
disease are not able to work enough to earn a living; 
others, through misfortune or old age, are dependent; 
while still others have performed some service which 
merits care in their old age or disability. 

It is a pleasant thought that the people are always 
found to be generous in their treatment of all who 
are not able fully to take care of themselves. While 
each person pursues his own selfish ends, all are 
humane enough to lend a helping hand. Everywhere 
it is common among us to help others in distress, and 
the amount of kindly service given by generous neigh¬ 
bors and friends to the needy is a fine testimonial that 

134 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


135 


we are really a neighborly lot of people. As indi¬ 
viduals, we do much; but as a body of people, organ¬ 
ized through government, we should aim to lessen 
distress of all kinds and to help all to better things, 
and to enable people in distress to help themselves 
to get a new start in life. 

Means of Caring for the Unfortunate.—The people 
maintain many kinds of work to care for the weak 
and unfortunate. Whereas, formerly, a cruel world 
left many to suffer, now almost everywhere in this 
country means are provided to care for the weak and 
to lend encouragement and help to those who may 
not be able to help themselves. 

Chief among the things which are provided are: 

Special care and protection for children. 

Homes, schools and asylums for the afflicted 
such as the blind, deaf, insane and feeble¬ 
minded. 

Hospitals for the sick and injured. 

Pensions for those who have done some good 
service. 

Insurance against old age, sickness, accident 
and unemployment. 

Poor relief, outside of institutions. 

Care and Protection of Children.—The work done 
for the care and protection of children is the finest 
charitable work performed. It should be extended 
in every way to make sure that every child has a 
chance to grow up strong and healthy and with an 


136 


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education which will enable him to succeed. When 
all children are properly cared for and protected, 
there will be far less need for help in later life. 

The ways in which progressive states and cities 
have begun to care for children are numerous. 

Many states have laws requiring that every baby’s 
eyes must be treated at birth to prevent blindness. 
Probably thousands of persons who are now blind 
would not have been blind if that had been the law 
in all states years ago. These new laws are saving 
thousands from future blindness. 

When children go to school, they are in many 
places under constant care of physicians and nurses. 
Diseases and defects which might be very injurious, 
if left alone, are discovered and prevented. Thus, 
many are saved from being blind, deaf and diseased. 
The children are taught how to take care of their 
eyes, ears and teeth. They are thus given a better 
opportunity to grow up well and strong, and thus 
to become good citizens. 

Extra care is taken to make sure that the milk sup¬ 
ply furnished in the cities is fit for the feeding of 
babies. An effort is made in every city to see that 
milk is pure. The process of pasteurization is re¬ 
sorted to and sometimes required. Pasteurization is 
a process of heating milk to a certain temperature 
which destroys all disease germs. The number of 
babies saved by the pure milk work is enormous, but 
greater care everywhere would save thousands more. 

When children leave the school to go to work, the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


137 


community care goes along with them. In almost 
every state, laws have been passed to prohibit child 
labor before the child is fourteen years of age. In 
several states the limit is sixteen years. These laws 
simply recognize that if a child goes to work too early 
he weakens his body, fails to get an education, and 
prevents his own later success. Extra care is taken 
under the laws to prevent children from working 
around dangerous machinery and in insanitary and 
immoral places. 

Orphan and dependent children are cared for by 
the states and cities. More and more, the effort is 
made to find homes for such children. In every state, 
there are private or public organizations engaged in 
finding homes for children. It means a great deal 
to the orphan child to be placed in a good home 
and many kind people are made glad by the adoption 
of some homeless child. 

Not only are children cared for and protected by 
the community when they are homeless, but the peo- 
pie in many communities see that a child is not per¬ 
mitted to live under conditions which are harmful. 
If parents or guardians are shiftless, drunken or 
cruel, the people, through the juvenile court, step in 
and take the child away after proving that the par¬ 
ents are not fit to rear the child properly. 

The duty of the community to its children is thus 
enforced in many ways. Love for little children and 
pain at their distress prompt many good deeds; but 
the people see in this work a great advantage for the 


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future of their children. A healthy happy child has 
a good chance of becoming a helpful law-abiding 
citizen. 

Homes and Hospitals for the Afflicted.—There was 
a time when every person who was unable to sup¬ 
port himself was sent to the local poor house. The 
blind, insane, feeble-minded, epileptic, consumptive 
and other diseased persons were kept together. Per¬ 
haps there are communities where this is still the 
case, but it is hoped that they are few. Enlightened 
communities have long recognized that cases of in¬ 
sanity, feeble-mindedness, epilepsy and consumption 
need special treatment and they have established 
special institutions for each of these classes of unfor¬ 
tunates. Nearly every state has its state insane 
hospitals where the best care is given to the mentally 
sick people. Many states have epileptic hospitals and 
tuberculosis hospitals for the care and treatment of 
patients. Many have provided homes and schools for 
the blind, deaf and dumb where special care is given, 
and simple means of livelihood are taught. There 
are also many institutions for the feeble-minded and 
asylums for the treatment of drunkenness. The 
poor houses still exist as local institutions. They 
care for the old and needy, but they are becoming 
more homelike in their methods and the name ‘^Old 
People’s Home” is taking the place of the unhappy 
term ‘‘Poor House.” 

Care of the Sick and Injured.—Many communities 
care for their sick and injured by means of local hos- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


139 


pitals. Private philanthropy has done a great deal to 
relieve distress. Church organizations and philan¬ 
thropists have established hospitals and medical dis¬ 
pensaries and have often done the work which the 
community would otherwise have to do. Every city 
of any considerable size now has its hospital support¬ 
ed by charitable people or by the city. Wherever pri¬ 
vate charity does not provide for hospitals, the cities 
should. Such institutions help all persons. The rich 
and the poor get care which would otherwise be im¬ 
possible and since health is so great a public concern 
every means of promoting it should be provided. 
Everywhere, the tendency is to do more than merely 
treat the cases as they come. Home nursing is being 
organized through a system of following up cases to 
prevent the return of the disease. 

Temporary Care and Help.—If all of the means of 
ending a helping hand described above were put into 
force, there would be few cases left of distress which 
w^ould need relief. At present, however, there are 
many cases which need temporary care. Various 
ways are provided to help people in trouble. Since 
we have no scheme of sickness and unemployment 
insurance in this country it happens that there are 
many instances where people must be helped directly. 
Private charities do a great deal and the charity 
organization societies in the larger cities seek out the 
worthy cases for relief. There are left many cases 
which the township or county poor officers have to 
take care of by giving food, clothing or shelter. The 


i40 


OUR AMERICA 


danger in all charity work is that unworthy persons, 
who are able to support themselves, will be aided. 
And it takes expert and trained workers to prevent 
fraud. 

In times of serious accidents, floods, epidemics, fires 
and other calamities all the agencies, private and pub¬ 
lic, are strained to give immediate relief. These are 
times which bring out the better side of men. Un¬ 
selfish aid at such times shows a fine spirit. In times 
of great disaster the American Red Cross is usually 
called upon to take charge of the relief work. The 
wonderful work of this organization should be famil¬ 
iar to all. 

A favorite form of relief is the municipal lodging 
house where men and women may get a meal or a 
bc' for a small sum which may be paid in work. 
Where such an institution exists, no worthy person 
needs to suffer. 

Pensions.—Pensions should hardly be classed 
among charities, for the idea of a pension is that it is 
a payment for some good service performed. The 
most familiar type of pension is that for soldiers and 
sailors who fought in our wars. The federal gov¬ 
ernment pays pensions to its soldiers and sailors and 
their dependent wives and children. Many of the 
southern states likewise pay pensions to the soldiers 
who fought on the side of the South in the Civil War. 

Nearly every large city pensions its policemen and 
firemen when they are disabled or after long service. 
The policemen and firemen risk their lives in the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


141 


service of the community, and they are entitled to a 
reward from the community. Men are by this means 
encouraged to enter these hazardous employments, 
and the community has this honorable way of treat¬ 
ing its faithful servants when they are not able to do 
regular work. Usually the allowance is about half 
the regular pay but a part of this is generally made 
up from payments made each month to the fund by 
the policemen and firemen. 

Teachers’ pensions are also provided quite gen¬ 
erally in this country by the states and cities. Men 
and women who devote long years in the cause of 
education at low wages, are entitled to special con¬ 
sideration. The fund is made up by the teachers 
with the assistance of the city and of the state in 
cases where state wide pension systems exist. Thus, 
after long service, teachers may retire on a pension 
which is usually high enough to provide for them. 
By this means, too, instead of discharging them, the 
cities are able to retire teachers who are no longer 
capable on account of age or disability to do their 
work. 

In the last few years, mothers’ pensions have be¬ 
come popular and nearly all the states now have 
mothers’ pension laws under which worthy mothers 
whose husbands have died or mothers who have been 
deserted are given a certain amount each week to 
help them care for their children. By this method 
the mother is paid by the pension to take care of the 
children. It is far better to keep the family together 


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in this way under the care of the mother than to have 
it broken up on account of the inability of the mother 
to support the children and care for them herself. 
In all cases it is customary to grant such a pension 
only after it is shown that the mother is capable and 
worthy of trust. Fraud is in that way prevented. 

Social Insurance.—There are some misfortunes 
which are bound to come and others which may come 
to all of us. We guard against them as best we can. 
but not all succeed in being prepared when they do 
come. Every one grows old. Some are able to save 
enough to care for themselves in their old age and 
others have relatives and friends to care for them. 
Many have not been able to save and have no means 
of support. After a worthy life, they may be de¬ 
pendent upon charity. 

Likewise in the case of sickness or accident or 
unemployment, some are prepared while others are 
not. The blow comes and distress follows. The 
remedy for such conditions is a scheme of insurance 
against old age, sickness, accident and unemployment 
whereby each person contributes during his working 
days and is insured against want in old age, sickness 
and accident or when he is out of work. By this 
means, each is helped, by all, to bear the extra bur¬ 
dens. Almost everywhere in the countries of Europe 
and two-thirds of the states of this country, laborers 
are insured against accidents. When the same sys¬ 
tem is applied to the other calamities of life every 
person may feel more secure about his future. Thrifty 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


143 


people are providing* for themselves by insurance but 
all should be prepared in this way for calamities. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

• What are the principal ways in which your state and 
community protect and care for children? « 

Write all of the reasons which justify extensive work in 
protecting and caring for children. 

What state institutions are there, in your state, to care 
for defective people? 

What are the advantages of state insane asylums over 
local insane asylums? 

What is the difference between pensions and charities? 
Are mothers’ pensions a pension or a charity? 

How would you justify the expenditure of the people’s 
money to help pay pensions to: (a) soldiers, (b) firemen, 
(c) policemen and (d) teachers? 

Give reasons for and against old age pensions. 

Have there been any recent times when large numbers 
of men were unemployed and could not find work? 
What was done to relieve the situation? What would 
you suggest as a means of handling such situations? 

Is it advisable to feed tramps who ask for a meal? 

Make a list of all the means of helping the unfortunate 
in your community. 

What are the provisions of the law relating to child labor 
an your state? 

Find whether your state or city has a teachers’ pension 
law. What are its provisions? 

Does your city give pensions to policemen and firemen? 
Give an outline of the provisions for each. 

Charity organization societies in cities spend a great deal 
of time investigating cases before relief is given. Show 
vvhy this is the best polcy. 

What should be the chief aim of charitable work? 


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OUR AMERICA 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that provisions should be made for insurance 
against old age. 

Resolved that young people should not be allowed to 
work in factories, shops and stores until they are eigh¬ 
teen years of age unless the employment in which the/ 
Engage has been approved by competent public authori¬ 
ties. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Warner, American Charities. 

Seager, Social Insurance. 

Davis, Field of Social Service. 

Debaters’ Handbook, Mothers^ Pensions. 
Debaters’ Handbook, Compulsory Insurance. 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State Board of Charities or similar board. 

Russell Sage Foundation. 

U. S. Children’s Bureau. 

American National Red Cross. 

National Conference of Charities and Correctionsc 


CHAPTER XII 


CONSERVATION 

In very recent years, we have come to see that 
land, minerals, w'aters, forests and other natural re¬ 
sources are limited. In earlier times, no effort was 
made to save them for there appeared to be more 
than all could possibly use. The discovery that the 
demands of increased population and enormous 
waste were rapidly exhausting our stocks turned 
attention sharply to the question of conservation 
which means saving for wise use. 

The Governors’ Conference in 1908 . —The govern¬ 
ors of all of the states n.et with the president at 
Washington in May, 1908, to consider this important 
matter of conservation. From that date, the ^*dea of 
saving spread over the country and nearly every 
state created a special commission to study the sub¬ 
ject and to point out ways to save the natural re¬ 
sources. 

The governors said in their resolutions, ‘^We de¬ 
clare the conviction that the great prosperity of our 
country rests upon the abundant resources of the 
land chosen by our forefathers for their homes. 

“We look upon these resources as a heritage to 
be made use of in establishing and promoting the 

145 


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OUR AMERICA 


comfort, prosperity and happiness of the Ameri¬ 
can people but not to be wasted, or needlessly de¬ 
stroyed. 

“These natural resources include the land on which 
we live and which yields our food; the living waters 
which fertilize the soil, supply power, and form great 
avenues of commerce; the forests which yield the 
materials for our homes, prevent erosion of the soil 
and conserve the navigation and other uses of the 
streams; and the minerals which form the basis of 
our industrial life and supply us with heat, light and 
power. 

“We agree that the land should be so used that 
erosion and soil wash shall cease; and that there 
should be reclamation of arid and semi-arid regions 
by means of irrigation, and of swamp and overflowed 
regions by means of drai^o-ge; that the waters should 
be so conserved and used as to promote navigation, 
to enable the arid regions to be reclaimed by irriga¬ 
tion, and to develop power in the interests of the 
people; that the forests which regulate our rivers, 
support our industries, and promote the fertility and 
productiveness of the soil should be preserved; that 
the minerals found, so abundantly, beneath the sur¬ 
face should be so used as to prolong their utility; 
that the beauty, healthfulness, and habitability of our 
country should be preserved and increased; that 
sources of national wealth exist for the benefit of the 
people, and that monopoly thereof should not be 
tolerated/^ 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


147 


Two Ways to Save.—There are two ways of pre¬ 
venting waste: 

By educating the people to the evil effects of waste 
and by methods of preventing waste. 

By joint action of the people through law to pre¬ 
vent wasteful things from being done. 

The government of the nation, state and local com¬ 
munities are all taking steps in both of these direc¬ 
tions to prevent waste. But a very great amount of 
work needs to be done and thus far, only beginnings 
have been made. 

Minerals.—The conservation of mineral resources 
is especially important because there is a limited sup¬ 
ply and when that is gone, there is no more to be had. 
At the present increase in output of coal and iron, 
these two most important minerals will be nearly ex¬ 
hausted in another century. Other minerals are also 
being used up at an alarming rate. Oil and gas are 
limited in quantity and the supply will be finally ex¬ 
hausted. We need, in all cases, to see that the 
utmost care is taken to prevent waste and, also, to 
see that no person or set of persons shall get control 
of the supply. 

The federal government is studying the problems. 
Through the United States Bureau of Mines, waste 
of minerals is being investigated and valuable facts 
are being worked out to prevent waste in mining, 
and to educate the people in the use of minerals— 
particularly of coal. The United States Geological 
Survey is making a careful survey of the existing 


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OUR AMERICA 


mineral resources and is making valuable discoveries 
in the use of minerals. 

The national government is also reserving all 
mineral rights in the public lands which are sold or 
opened to settlers. Hereafter, when a man buys land 
from the government, he buys it without any rights 
to the minerals which may be found on it. The 
minerals belong to the people. If that policy had 
been in force from the beginning, we would now have 
more than enough revenues, .*om that source, to 
pay all of the expense of government. It is prob¬ 
able, that with the development of the West, the 
government will derive large revenues from the 
mineral rights which they hold. The rich mineral 
lands of Alaska are reserved for the whole people 
by this foresighted policy. 

The states are also taking a hand in saving the 
minerals. Through their conservation commissions 
and geological departments the problems of the 
states' resources are being studied. People are be¬ 
ginning to urge that laws be also enacted to require 
that coal be mined carefully to prevent loss. 

In the case of other minerals, there is not so much 
loss in mining, but the limited supplies make it neces¬ 
sary to find substitutes of a more abundant kind. 
Experiments are conducted, therefore, by many 
government departments to determine ways of using 
cheaper materials. 

Forests.—The forests were cut down in the past 
because the ground was wanted for farming and 


THE elements of CIVICS 


149 


because forests were not profitable. Now, we have 
reached a time when wood for lumber is getting 
scarce and the need for it is increasing. We find also 
that the destruction of the forests has affected the 
flow of the streams. Waters rush off from the cleared 
lands and cause floods and in dry seasons the flow is 
almost stopped, thus preventing the regular use of 
water power. 

The United States governmeut maintains a Bureau 
of Forestry which studies forestry work, the means 
of preserving forests, and the planting of new for¬ 
ests. Several of the states, also, have such depart¬ 
ments. They are doing an excellent work for our 
welfare. 

The nation and the states are also buying up large 
tracts of land as forest preserves. Usually these pre¬ 
serves are selected at the head waters of streams to 
preserve the flow of waters. The federal government 
now has sixty-three million twenty-one thousand 
and seventy-eight acres in such preserves; Wiscon¬ 
sin, four hundred thousand; Michigan, five hun¬ 
dred eighty-nine thousand; Minnesota, one million 
forty-three thousand. There is much talk of the 
need of laws to regulate the cutting of timber, so as 
to prevent unnecessary waste. Certainly, the people 
ought to be educated upon the subject. 

Nearly all states make provisions against forest 
fires. Such fires are terribly destructive and danger¬ 
ous. More than fifty million dollars are lost every 
year through forest fires. Laws are enacted to re- 


150 


OUR AMERICA 


quire greater care on railroads passing through for¬ 
ests, to prevent the danger from sparks. Hunters 
are restricted and persons are compelled to take 
extra care to put out all fires lighted. The federal 
government maintains rangers whose duty it is to 
patrol the government forests. A fire is discovered 
and by a system of signals, help is soon at hand. 
Several states maintain similar services on their for¬ 
est preserves. 

Waters.—The supply of water is not exhaustible 
but its equal flow has been disturbed by the destruc¬ 
tion of the forests. This has interfered seriously 
with the development of water power. The govern¬ 
ment, as we have seen, is attacking the problems 
through forestry. 

The purity of waters is another concern, and strict 
laws are made by a few states to prevent dumping 
sewage and other refuse \yhich pollutes the waters. 

The principal matter of interest for the people con¬ 
cerning water is to prevent any one from getting con¬ 
trol of water or of water , power. We are rapidly 
approaching the time when electricity generated by 
water power will take the place of the steam power 
generated from coal. The ownership of water power 
is, therefore, important. The national government 
has recognized this and is reserving for all the people 
the water power sites on public lands. States are 
taking similar action. Sometimes we may have vast 
revenues from these water powers which the people 


own. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


151 


Land. —We have already touched upon the work 
which the governments are doing to help preserve 
the soil. The lives of our children depend upon the 
work of making soils more productive. Unless we 
increase production per acre, we shall soon reach a 
time when not enough foodstuffs will be raised to 
feed us. 

The United States Department of Agriculture, 
the state departments of agriculture, the experiment 
stations, agricultural colleges and the vocational 
schools are all attacking the problem, and the exten¬ 
sion divisions of the agricultural colleges and the 
county agents of agriculture are carrying the facts 
to the farmer. We have already discussed what this 
means in increased production. 

In addition, the people, through their governments, 
are taking positive steps to prevent any one from 
monopolizing the supplies of fertilizer materials. The 
three elements, potash, nitrogen and phosphates are 
necessary to plant life, and the available supplies are 
limited. Scientific researches are showing new 
sources of supply, but laws are needed to prevent the 
waste of these precious substances and to prevent 
any one from controlling them. 

The United States government has reclaimed 
many million acres of land by means of irrigation. 
Several western states are doing similar work. We 
have already seen that there are seventy-five million 
acres which can be made extremely productive by 
irrigation. There are also seventy-five million acres 


152 


OUR AMERICA 


now in swamps which could be drained and made 
into the most fertile lands. The nation and the states 
are both working on these problems and already mil¬ 
lions of acres have been drained. 

Fish and Game.—Every state in the Union is tak¬ 
ing some steps to preserve fish and game. They do 
this by laws which protect fish and game and per¬ 
mit hunting and fishing only in certain seasons, and 
by providing for hatching fish and breeding game for 
the purpose of restocking the streams and fields. If 
it were not for this work, in many parts of the 
country, fish and game would no longer exist. The 
federal government is also taking a part in doing the 
same work. The United States officials cooperate 
with state officers and also carry on an extensive 
work on their ov/n account. 

Both the states and the nation have taken steps to 
preserve the wild birds by passing laws which pro¬ 
hibit the killing of such birds. In 1913 Congress 
passed an act called the Migratory Bird Act which 
prohibits the killing of certain birds known as migra¬ 
tory birds. 

Plant Diseases.—We have already discussed at 
length the prevention of insect pests, animal diseases 
and weeds. The states do extensive work in this re¬ 
spect through laws and through officials who study 
methods of prevention. There is in nearly every state 
an official known as the state entomologist whose duty 
it is to study diseases of plants and trees. He is also 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


153 


charged with the duty of inspecting nursery stock to 
prevent the spread of plant and tree diseases. In many 
states he tests agricultural seeds. He may quarantine 
against infected nursery stock from other states. The 
federal government is carrying on similar work of 
study and inspection. Foreign nursery stock brought 
to this country is subject to federal inspection. This 
work means the saving of millions of dollars to the 
people. Indeed, if it were not for the work which 
the nation and states do to prevent animal and plant 
diseases, insect pests and weeds, it is doubtful if we 
could produce enough to live. 

Smoke.—The problem of smoke is usually thought 
to be a city problem because it is there that smoke be¬ 
comes a nuisance. It is really a problem in con¬ 
servation which affects the whole country. An esti¬ 
mate has been made that five hundred million dollars 
are wasted every year through smoke. Smoke means 
poor combustion of coal. Ignorance in firing with 
coal and poor furnaces are the causes. Ways are 
known by which coal may be almost perfectly con¬ 
sumed without causing dense smoke. 

The cities have been fighting this nuisance fol 
some time. Many cities have smoke inspectors who 
enforce the laws requiring that factories shall not 
permit dense black smoke to be poured out. The 
efforts of these inspectors have not been very suc¬ 
cessful, and it is seen that the problem is one of edu¬ 
cation. When people begin to see that it means a 


154 


OUR AMERICA 


direct loss in the amount of coal burned, laws will not 
be needed to compel the installing of smoke con¬ 
sumers. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Write a definition of the term ^'natural resources.” 

What would be the effect if the coal supply were ex¬ 
hausted? 

Name some substitutes for coal. 

What is the meaning of the term “soil erosion” ? 

What example of soil erosion have you seen? What 
is the effect of erosion? How can it be prevented? 

What is the relation of forestry to the water supply? 

What work is being done by your state to aid forestry? 

Do the owners of forests in your community exercise 
care in cutting and handling wood and lumber? 

What is the season for hunting different wild animals 
and birds in your county? 

Write to your congressman at Washington and ask for 
a copy of the Federal Migratory Bird Act and study the 
provisions of it. 

What plant or tree diseases do you find in your com¬ 
munity? What is done to prevent them? 

What insect pests do you find in your community and 
what is done to stop the damage from them? 

Does your city do anything to save the trees and 
shrubs in the city from damage from diseases, insect 
pests or other dangers? 

Is smoke a nuisance in your city and what is being 
done to prevent it? 

Get a copy of the fish and game laws of your state from 
the state fish and game commissioner or similar official. 

What is the importance of saving and developing water 
power ? 

Why should the people reserve rights in minerals in all 
public lands which the government sells? 







sv 


* A 




•y 




RH«m 




■JU 


rr- 


Smoke Nuisance 




















Land Erosion 



Forest Fire Waste 













THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


155 


Give reasons for the development of state forest reser¬ 
vations. 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that it should be made unlawful for any per¬ 
son to destroy forest trees by careless cutting-. 

Resolved that every owner of land should be required 
to prevent erosion of soil by every means available. 

Resolved that the welfare of the country depends upon 
conservation of natural resources. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U. S. Geological Department 
(Mineral Resources). 

State Geologist or Geological Survey, 

(Mineral Resources). 

U. So Department of Agriculture 
(Forestry, insect pests, game)- 
State Entomologist 

(Plant Diseases and Insect Pestsl. 

State Forester or Forestry Board, if one exists. 
National Conservation Congress. 


CHAPTER Xin 


CONTROLLING BUSINESS 

The highest ideal of this country is that all per¬ 
sons shall have equal rights and that no person shall 
have any privileges which are not given to all on 
equal terms. It is contrary to the American spirit 
voiced in the Declaration of Independence to permit 
inequality of rights. 

Equality of Rights.—In an early chapter of this 
book, it was explained how the people prevent fraud 
by the crafty and strong. Many things are done for 
the protection of the innocent purchaser of goods to 
insure him a fair deal; of the depositors in banks to 
insure the safety of their money; of the purchaser of 
insurance to make sure that losses will be paid; and 
of the investor in corporations against clever frauds. 
These acts have done much to prevent losses and to 
give the people confidence in business. 

Monopoly.—There are many acts which take from 
the people unjustly or interfere seriously with their 
rights. The most important of these acts is that of 
controlling the supply of the people’s necessities and 
fixing at an unfair rate, the prices which they must 
pay. This is called monopoly. 

156 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


157 


There are several ways in which monopolies have 
been created. 

Men have obtained possession of all or the greater 
part of the supply of commodities such as crude oil, 
copper, coal, iron and meat. In a few cases, the 
wheat and cotton supply have been cornered by one 
man or a few men. 

Persons supplying or manufacturing the same arti¬ 
cles have entered into an agreement to fix the price 
of their output. 

Competing concerns have sometimes divided the 
territory and given a portion to each. Having no 
competition, they have charged whatever they could 
force the people to pay. 

Competing concerns have sometimes entered into 
an agreement to put their profits into a pool to be 
divided on a fixed basis thus killing competition. 

One concern has bought its competitors and 
thereby gained control of the entire product. 

It is plain that if these practises were allowed to go 
on, the people would be at the mercy of a few men 
who controlled their necessities. Such a condition 
could not be allowed for in effect it amounts to plain 
robbery, there being no essential difference between 
the person who takes money outright and the one 
who holds up the supply of necessities and compels 
unfair payment. 

Where the supply of raw material for the manu¬ 
facture of necessities is controlled by one person or 
group of persons the monopoly is doubly bad, be- 


158 


OUR AMERICA 


cause every one is prevented from engaging in the 
business for lack of raw material. 

Control of Monopoly.—Both the states and the 
nation have, in various ways, tried to prohibit 
monopoly and keep competition alive. Thus far, 
they have not succeeded and the price of many things 
which we must buy is fixed, not according to their 
value, but by the arbitrary will of a few persons who 
have a monopoly of the product. 

The federal government enacted the Sherman 
Anti-Trust Law in 1890 prohibiting monopoly which 
interfered with trade. This, of course, applied to 
trade which passed over state lines. But the law has 
never been clear and therefore it has not prevented 
monopoly. Similar laws have been passed by the 
states, but the difficulty of stating clearly what is 
meant and avoiding interference with honest trade 
has made such laws of little value. 

Recently the Federal Trade Commission was cre¬ 
ated by Congress to control monopoly. It is ex¬ 
pected from this act that many of the evils will be 
prevented and honest business given a fair chance. 

Natural Monopoly.—Another kind of monopoly is 
called natural monopoly. The principal natural 
monopolies are the railroads, telephone and tele¬ 
graph, street railways, water, gas and electric light 
plants. These are called natural monopolies because, 
in the nature of the business, there can be but little 
competition. One can readily see that it would not 
pay to have two lines of railroad where one would 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


159 


carry the traffic, or to have in a city two street rail¬ 
ways, gas, electric light, water, telephone or other 
companies. Where two such companies exist it is at 
a loss to the public. But the people can not be left 
at the mercy of a single company and the govern¬ 
ment is called upon for protection. 

Regulation of Natural Monoply.—The attempt was 
first made to fix rates by law. This proved of little 
value because the co^.panies usually gave poorer 
service. The people want good service at a fair price. 
They saw that to fix the price without fixing the 
service gave no relief. For instance, it is of no value 
to lower the price of gas from one dollar to sixty 
cents per thousand cubic feet if the number of heat 
units in the gas is reduced in like proportion. It is 
worse for the public to have railroad fares fixed at two 
cents if it results in poor equipment, slow service 
and a lack of safety. 

Railroad and Public Utility Commissions.—Seeing 
these difficulties, the states and nation have created 
commissions which are charged with the duty of 
seeing that just and reasonable service is given at a 
just and reasonable price. The Interstate Commerce 
Commission has power over railroads which cross 
state lines. The state railroad commissions control 
railroads within the states. More than half of the 
states have created public utility commissions to con¬ 
trol rates and service of railroads, street railroads, 
gas, water, electric light and telephone and telegraph 
companies. These commissions investigate condi- 


160 


OUR AMERICA 


tions and fix rates and service which are fair to all 
concerned. ♦ 

Labor and Capital.—There are two main factors 
in carrying on the world’s work—labor and capital. 
These two factors work together in changing raw 
materials into finished products. The owners of 
capital are the employers and the great mass of peo¬ 
ple are employees. Capital gets its return in profits 
and labor gets its return in v/ages. The total returns 
of industry are divided between the two. The pro¬ 
portion of the returns which labor and capital should 
get is a source of constant trouble. Labor naturally 
seeks higher wages, shorter hours and better condi¬ 
tions under which to work. The granting of these 
lowers the profits of capital. 

Collective Bargaining.—In early times, wages 
were fixed according to the supply and demand'. 
This condition still exists in many lines of industry . 
and particularly in farming. There is usually a pre¬ 
vailing wage which is fixed by the supply of farm 
labor. In most industries which employ many men, 
this condition does not prevail. The bargain between 
employers and employees is not made by each man 
with the employer, but by all of the men acting to¬ 
gether with the employer. This is called collective 
bargaining. Often, collective bargaining consists in 
an agreement between all the employees in an occu¬ 
pation and all of the employers in that occupation. 
Thus the coal miners of the United States through N 
their wage committee bargain with all the owners of |l 



THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


161 


the coal mines, through their committee—and fix a 
schedule of wages, hours and conditions for a given 
period for all men in the industry. 

Collective bargaining came about through the 
trade unions which have been formed in many lines 
of industry. The workers in each trade have their 
own union and nearly all of these unions are united 
in the American Federation of Labor. Labor unions 
are found principally in the skilled and partly skilled 
trades. Recently large organizations of unskilled 
v/orkers have been formed to assert the rights of the 
great mass of unskilled laborers. 

Strikes.—The conflict of labor and capital over 
wages-and conditions of work often results in strikes. 
The men refuse to work for the wages or under the 
conditions offered by the employers and the employ¬ 
ers refuse to meet the conditions demanded by the 
workers. The men go on a strike, i. e., refuse to 
work and the contest continues until one side or the 
other gives in or a compromise is reached. In the 
meantime the public, which is dependent on the in¬ 
dustry, suffers. The employers lose their trade and 
profits and the employees their wages. Strikes are 
often accompanied by violence and bloodshed, par¬ 
ticularly when the employers attempt to put new 
men at work in place of the strikers. 

A strike of railroad or street railway men usually 
results in serious inconvenience and loss to the public. 
Ordinary business can not be conducted when the 
arteries of travel are stopped. For that reason, the 


162 


OUR AMERICA 


public takes greater interest in means for settling 
strikes on public utilities than they do where 
the strike does not affect them so seriously. We 
shall see later how special means are provided to 
settle such strikes. There are other strikes no less 
harmful to the public, such as a strike of coal miners, 
teamsters, or freight handlers. A strike of the coal 
miners means the tying up of one of the people’s 
necessities. Serious hardships result from interfer¬ 
ence in the regular supply of coal. The work of a 
city may be almost wholly tied up by a strike of 
teamsters and a strike of freight handlers, particu¬ 
larly the freight handlers on the docks—the long¬ 
shoremen—cripples business seriously because it 
stops the progress of transportation and exchange. 

The results of strikes are so serious to all con¬ 
cerned that steps have been taken to prevent them 
from occurring and to settle those which do occur. 
Employers and employees in many lines of industry 
are preventing strikes by means of trade agreements 
under which all disputed points are settled by agree¬ 
ment or adjusted peaceably. 

Profit Sharing.—The scheme of profit sharing is 
also used to keep men satisfied. Under this plan, the 
men are paid their regular wages and are given a per¬ 
centage of the profits. All have an interest, there¬ 
fore, in working together under this plan. 

Arbitration and Conciliation.—The people also 
take a hand in serious labor troubles through boards 
of arbitration and conciliation. The best known of 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


163 


these plans for preventing strikes in this country is 
the federal law of 1913 which provides for settling 
railway strikes. Under this plan, when trouble oc¬ 
curs the commissioner of mediation and concilia¬ 
tion confers with both sides and tries to get them to 
come to an agreement. If he fails in that, he tries to 
get the matter presented to a board of arbitration 
consisting of two from each side and a fifth appointed 
by the first four. If he fails to get an agreement to 
arbitrate he investigates the causes thoroughly and 
gives the facts to the public. 

Many of the states have adopted laws of a similar 
kind, but they have riot been successful to a great 
degree because of the difficulty of settling disputes 
after a quarrel has been started. The most success¬ 
ful way to handle matters of this character is to pre¬ 
vent the causes, and this can be done by creating a 
fairer understanding between employers and em¬ 
ployees. Mutual agreement is more effective than 
law. Such agreement can come only when each 
understands the other and the spirit of the fair deal 
prevails. 

Regulation of Labor Conditions.—We have seen 
that through agreement in many occupations the 
wages, hours of labor and the conditions of labor are 
fixed by collective bargaining. What the men in 
these occupations gain for themselves, government 
is called upon to give to others. Hours of work in 
unhealthful or dangerous occupations are often fixed 
by law to protect the workers and the public. Laws 


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have been passed in several states limiting the hours 
which women may work in industry, to eight or nine. 
Many people advocate an eight hour day for all 
workers. 

Minimum Wages.—In general, the matter of wages 
has been left to agreement between employers and 
employees. Recently, however, there is a movement 
which seeks to fix a minimum wage which must be 
paid to workers. The idea has been put into opera¬ 
tion in a number of states by the creation of boards 
with powder to determine what is a fair minimum 
wage for women workers and compel its payment. 
Some foreign countries have such laws applying to 
all workers. The theory of such laws is that an in¬ 
dustry which can not pay its employees a wage high 
enough to enable them to live on is not fit to exist. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

What is the meaning of the term monopoly? Natural 
monopoly ? 

In what ways do people obtain a monopoly of certain 
products ? 

Why is it necessary to prevent monopoly? 

Why is it not good policy to have two railroads between 
two points when one railroad would carry the traffic? 

Why is it best to have only one water company in a city ? 
Gas company? Street railway company? 

Show the need for some authority to regulate rates when 
a company has a monopoly of any necessity. 

Why is it necessary to regulate service as well as rates? 

In comparing rates charged for gas, electric light, water 
and street railway in different cities, what conditions should 
be taken into consideration? 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


165 


Why is it necessary to regulate railroal rates ? Is it fair 
to fix a rate of two cents a mile for passenger service on 
all railroads in a state ? 

What is the meaning of the term collective bargaining? 

Show why collective bargaining is necessary if the work¬ 
ers are to get fair wages. 

What are the losses from strikes to the employer? To 
the employee? To the public? 

Why are the people justified in taking action to prevent 
and to end strikes? 

Make a list of all the strikes you have read about or know 
about and show how each affected the welfare of the people. 

What is the meaning of the term “minimum wage” ? 

Should the government fix the price of products which 
the people buy? Give reasons. 

Should the government fix the quality of goods which 
people purchase? 

QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that a minimum wage should be fixed by law 
for all workers. 

Resolved that workers should not be employed to work 
regularly more than eight hours a day. 

Resolved that it is better for the government to own and 
operate railroads and public utilities than to regulate the 
rates and service. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Beard, American Government and Politics. 

Chap. XIX “The Regulation of Commerce.” 

Chap. XXXII “Social and Economic Legislation.” 


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WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

U. S. Trade Commission, Washington, D. C. 

State Railroad Commission or Public Service Commis¬ 
sion. 

American Association for Labor Legislation. 

American Federation of Labor (for labor’s side). 
National Association of Manufacturers (for the employ¬ 
ers’ side). 


CHAPTER XIV 


KEEPING THE RECORDS 

The keeping of records is a very important funC’ 
tion of the various governments, local, state and 
national, which do our business. These records are 
of three main kinds: 

Records of the official acts of the public officers. 

Records of private transactions which are recorded 
for protection, such as deeds to property, articles of 
incorporation of corporations. 

Records and facts about the people and their 
work, such as births, deaths and marriages, census 
of population, industries, etc. 

Importance of Official Records.—The importance 
of keeping the official records of the acts of public 
officers has always been clear, and ample care is 
taken, everywhere, to preserve them. Each office 
keeps the documents and other records of its work 
and preserves them. There is, in every townships 
county, city, state and in the nation, one officer whose 
duty it is to keep the official documents under which 
we are working. 

United States Records.—The secretary of state of 
the United States is the official who has charge of the 
official acts of the national government. In his de- 
167 


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partment are preserved the official copies of the 
laws passed by Congress, the treaties made with 
foreign countries, the proclamations of the president, 
the correspondence with foreign countries, the agree¬ 
ments with the Indian tribes and many similar docu¬ 
ments. These must be carefully guarded to prevent 
theft, mutilation and alterations. Their care is to 
the nation what the care of notes, contracts and in¬ 
surance policies is to the individual. 

State Records.—In the states, the secretary of 
state is the official having charge of the state records. 
In his office are filed and preserved the original 
copies of the laws passed by the legislature, the pro¬ 
clamations of the governor and agreements to which 
the state is a party. 

Local Records.—The official records of the counties 
are preserved by the clerk of the county, known, gen¬ 
erally, as the county clerk. In addition to the 
official acts of the county, the county clerk generally 
keeps the court records which are numerous and im¬ 
portant. In the state and nation these duties per¬ 
taining to court records are performed by special 
officers known as clerks of the courts. 

The city records are kept by the city clerk, the 
town records by the town clerk, and the township 
records by the township clerk or township trustee. 

Records of Private Matters.—The keeping of rec¬ 
ords of private transactions constitutes an important 
part of the record keeping by the government. The 
most important is the recording of deeds to property. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


169 


mortgages upon property, and similar documents. A 
special officer is provided in each county, known 
usually as the county recorder, whose function it is 
to record deeds, mortgages and similar papers. This 
work is done for protection against fraud and against 
loss of documents. All people are thus benefited. 
This branch of the government service is the most 
used of any because almost every one at some time 
has something to do with the recording of some 
document relating to property. 

Deeds and Mortgage Records.—The recording of 
deeds and mortgages is done usually by writing out 
the documents in full in bound record books which 
are carefully numbered and indexed. These records 
are open to the public. They serve to show owner¬ 
ship. Whenever property is sold, the buyer can 
search the records and find exact facts about the 
ownership of the property and any mortgages or 
claims against the property. If it were not for these 
records, no one could safely buy property because he 
could not find out for certain what rights the seller 
had in the property or what claims there might be 
against it. But the buyer must run his own risk if 
he makes a mistake in searching the record. 

Needed Changes in Recording Deeds and Mort¬ 
gages.—The vast amount of work necessary to keep 
these records, and the great cost in searching the 
record every time a piece of property changes hands, 
besides the risk incurred, has caused an attempt at 
reform to make the record keeping easier and still 


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make it certain and safe. A number of states have 
adopted the Torrens system of land records by which 
a simpler system of recording is provided. 

The Torrens System.—The method used is as fol¬ 
lows: Whenever a landowner desires to register 
the title to a piece of land he makes application to 
the registrar and deposits his deed and other papers. 
The registrar causes an examination of the title to be 
made, and if the title of the owner is clear, the 
registrar, after public notice, issues a certificate to 
the owner which briefly describes the property and 
the nature of the holder’s title. This certificate 
guarantees the title to the owner. A copy of the 
certificate is kept in the office. Thereafter no one 
need go back of this guarantee to prove his title. 
When the property is sold, a statement is made out 
in proper form, and when the transfer has been noted 
on the recorder’s books and on the certificate, the 
new owner has the title to the property with the 
government guarantee. Mortgages against the prop¬ 
erty are noted on the certificate. Thus all the search 
that is needed is in one book in the recorder’s office. 
This method results in greater safety of title and 
saves very great expense in proving ownership. Real 
estate becomes a much better investment when there 
are no risks of titles. 

Records of Incorporation.—The government also 
keeps a record of many other transactions in cases 
where the public has a right to know the facts in 
order to protect themselves. The records of the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


171 


forming of corporations are always filed in the office 
of the secretary of state in each state. This is an 
important matter because of the great amount of 
business which is now done by corporations. The 
records in the office of the secretary of state make 
it possible for any person to obtain information about 
any company in which he might be interested. In 
many states, every company must file full information 
about its work and be approved by some state official. 
This tends to prevent the so-called ‘‘blue sky” com¬ 
panies, which sometimes defraud the people. If full 
reports were required frequently and kept on record, 
the people would be further protected by being able 
to get information at any time about the financial 
standing of companies. 

Records Prevent Fraud.—These examples serve 
to show what the government does to safeguard the 
people by having an official record of transactions 
about which they ought to be able to learn. All such 
records prevent fraud and give the people more cer¬ 
tainty in their dealings. Without the recording of 
deeds, a man could never be certain of the title to his 
real estate and without the record of corporations 
many people would be misled by fictitious corpora¬ 
tions. Without records of similar things the people 
would too often be at the mercy of clever schemers. 

Records of Facts About the People.—The keeping 
of records and facts about the people and their work 
gives a constant view of actual conditions and shows 
what things are progressing satisfactorily; what 


172 


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things need correction; and what dangerous tend¬ 
encies there may be in our country. The purposes 
of such records are twofold. They help to guide 
officials in performing their duties and they serve to 
educate the people on the actual conditions. They 
serve, for the country, the same purposes as an in¬ 
ventory in a store. They show our actual conditions. 

Birth, Death and Marriage Records.—Nearly all 
states and cities now keep records of births and 
deaths. The United States Census Bureau gathers 
the statistics of births and deaths for a large part of 
the country, and the help which the facts give is 
very great. For example, when by the statistics of 
deaths it is found that a large number of people die 
from certain causes, it points out the need for study 
of the causes of such diseases. When the death 
statistics showed the enormous losses from tubercu¬ 
losis, the people were aroused, and very active work 
has been carried on to prevent this disease. When 
the figures showed that great numbers of babies died 
in cities and the cause was traced to the milk supply, 
it aroused the people to the necessity of requiring 
better milk. Already millions of babies have been 
saved by such facts. It is safe to say that a large 
part of the wonderful health work now being done 
was brought about by the startling figures in the 
statistics of death and its causes. 

Statistics of births and marriages, besides being 
useful in showing the actual state of society in these 
respects, are very helpful public records. Birth 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


173 


statistics help to enforce the compulsory education 
and child labor law by showing proof of age. These 
also help often in settling estates by proving time 
and place of birth and parentage. Marriage statistics 
are also useful in preventing the crime of bigamy and 
in proving rights to property by proof of marriage. 

Records of Defectives.—The United States Census 
Bureau takes a census every ten years of the insane, 
feeble-minded, blind and other defectives. These facts 
usually point to the grave dangers which confront 
the country from these causes and positive steps for 
prevention are immediately demanded. The com¬ 
parison with former figures shows which way we are 
tending. 

Fire Loss.—The loss from fires has long been a 
disgrace to our country. We waste two hundred and 
fifty million dollars every year in fires. We have 
known of the waste for many years but it took the 
statistics gathered by state fire marshals to point out 
the main causes and the remedies. When it was 
shown that a majority of fires were caused by certain 
conditions which could be remedied, the remedy was 
soon demanded. We are just beginning to correct 
this great and needless loss, and the way was pointed 
out by the records of fires gathered by state fire 
marshals and city officials. 

Agricultural Facts.—The gathering of facts re¬ 
garding agriculture by the United States Department 
of Agriculture is an undertaking of large proportions. 
The conditions are shown every year and close com- 


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parisons are possible. The yield of crops and the 
average per acre are given. Monthly statements are 
given out to show the progress of the crops. Since 
business is dependent to a large degree on the crop 
yield, the official statement keeps down speculation 
by giving reliable facts. The census of crop yield also 
shows us the exact status of our farm wealth. We 
need such facts to guide our plans. 

Manufactures.—Likewise in the case of manufac¬ 
tures, a census of which is taken by the United States 
Census Bureau every five years, we get invaluable 
facts about the progress of industry and of the wealth 
created. We also learn about conditions of labor, 
hours of work, wages, apprenticeship and monotony 
of employment, which serves as a groundwork to 
make possible better conditions of work, living wages 
and vocational education. 

Facts About Railroads, Public Utilities, Banking 
Insurance.—In the same manner the Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission of the United States, the state 
railroad commissions and public utility commissions 
are gathering facts about the railroads and public 
utilities. These facts help us to be fair to the railroads 
and public utilities and to compel them to be 
fair to us. The Federal Reserve Board and the 
state bank superintendents get all the facts of bank¬ 
ing and the facts help to guide banking progress. 
The state insurance departments do the same for 
insurance. The factory inspectors and workmen’s 
compensation boards of the states gather the facts 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


175 


of industrial accidents, and thousands are saved from 
accidents by the remedial measures brought about 
by a knowledge of the facts. 

Facts About Education.—The United States com¬ 
missioner of education is constantly tabulating the 
facts about educational progress. His reports form a 
series of annual charts of progress. Likewise for each 
state the reports of the state superintendent are a 
guide for state action on matters of education. 

United States Census.—But the greatest bf all 
record work is that of the ten-year census taken by 
the United States Census Bureau. This is the one 
complete inventory of people and their possessions. 
The work is thoroughly done. The whole country is 
divided into districts. At the last census in 1910 the 
enumerators worked fifteen days gathering the facts. 
Every house and home was visited and the facts 
gathered and put on blanks which were forwarded to 
Washington and there tabulated. 

Apportionment of Representatives.—One of the 
chief benefits of the census is in keeping representa¬ 
tion equal. Every ten years the members of Con¬ 
gress are distributed on the basis of the new figures. 
Members of the legislature in most of the states are 
likewise distributed on the basis of the new figures. 
This was, in fact, the purpose of the census at the 
beginning. 

Census Shows Conditions.—As an agency to point 
out actual conditions in every field, and as an inven¬ 
tory of our assets, it has served a useful purpose. 


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The Census Bureau is now maintained as a perma¬ 
nent office and reports showing actual conditions are 
being constantly published to educate the public and 
guide the government in all its branches. A few of 
the states, also, take a census of their people every 
ten years but this would seem to be unnecessary be¬ 
cause of the thorough work done by the Ui, ited 
States Census Bureau. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

What are the reasons for preserving, at great expen>^, the 
records of government work? 

Why is the recording of deeds to property and of mort¬ 
gages made a public matter ? 

What advantages are there in having the United States 
Department of Agriculture collect information about the 
progress of crops and give out regular statements? 

To what official, if any, in your community must biiths 
and deaths be reported ? What are the advantages of such 
reports ? Get copies of the blanks used for reports of births, 
deaths and marriages. 

The United States Census Bureau spent over $14,000,000 
in collecting and publishing facts in 1910. How would you 
justify the expenditure? 

Make a report upon the exact method of recording deeds 
and mortgages in your community. 

Visit the office of the recorder of deeds, if possible, and 
see how the work is done. 

Send to the United States Census Bureau and ask for a 
copy of the abstract of the census for the use of your 
school. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


177 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the method of recording deeds and mort¬ 
gages is cumbersome and causes needless expenditure of 
time and money. 

Resolved that the government should extend its work of 
gathering and tabulating facts about the people and their 
work. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Reports of the U. S. Census Bureau. 

Reports of the officers mentioned in the text. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 


The U. S. Census Bureau. 

The different officers mentioned in the text. 


CHAPTER XV 


SELECTING PUBLIC OFFICERS 

It takes a large army of men and women to do all 
of the work which the people need to have done., 
Government business is, in this respect, like that of 
a great corporation. The people are the stockhold¬ 
ers and they must choose the managers of their busi¬ 
ness and the subordinates since all can not engage in 
managing affairs. It requires an elaborate scheme to 
select all of the officials and employees in such a way 
as to hold them all strictly accountable to their em¬ 
ployers—the people. 

The Right of Suffrage.—^The first matter to con¬ 
sider is: Who may have a voice in selecting officials? 
Who may vote? The answer varies widely in the 
states. In nearly all states, every man over twenty- 
one years of age may vote. In many of the western 
states all women over twenty-one years of age may 
also vote for all officers. The proposed federal 
amendment in effect gives women the right to vote 
and hold office on equal terms with men. A few: 
states require an educational test, no one being al¬ 
lowed to vote unless he can read and write and 
understand reasonably well. A few states require a 
man to pay a poll or other tax before he can vote. 
178 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


179 


Several states permit a foreigner to vote if he has 
declared his intention of becoming a citizen. 

Those who can not vote are persons under twenty- 
one; persons convicted of a felony; idiots and insane 
persons; Indians living in tribes; foreigners who 
have not become citizens. The right to vote is a 
political privilege which the people confer upon a 
part of their number. At first, the privilege was 
very limited. To vote a man had in early times 
in most of the states to be a considerable taxpayer. 
Gradually the privilege has been extended. 

Political Parties.—Our next inquiry concerns the 
method of selection by which a few people are picked 
out from the mass and put in charge of affairs. For 
illustration let us follow first the methods of electing 
a governor and afterward the selection of a president. 

We must first consider political parties and their 
influence, because it is through the parties that men 
are suggested and nominated. A political party is a 
body of people who believe in certain principles of 
government and who strive by acting together 
in an organized way to control the election of officials 
in order to put their principles into practise. We have 
always had parties. Scarcely had Washington taken 
office before the people divided into Republicans and 
Federalists. Since that time, there have been many 
different parties, but usually there have been only two 
main parties in any national campaign although some¬ 
times, as in 1912, there have been three main parties. 


180 


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Each party puts forth one candidate for each office 
and the people at the election merely decide between 
the parties. 

Nominating a Governor.—When a governor is to 
be elected, the parties take the first step. They 
nominate the man who is to lead them. There are 
two methods of making the nomination: (1) by a 
convention of delegates; (2) by a direct vote of the 
members of the party at a direct primary. Only six 
states* now (1921) nominate their governors by the 
convention system. Formerly all states did so, but 
the direct primary has taken its place and, probably 
soon, in none of the states will the convention be 
used. 

Convention System and Direct Primary.—Under 
the convention system delegates elected from each 
county, or smaller districts, meet and choose candi¬ 
dates. Under the direct primary system the people of 
each party go to the polls and vote for their choice 
and the person in each party who receives the highest 
number of votes is the candidate of that party. 

Before the convention or the direct primary is 
held, a campaign is carried on by persons seeking 
the nomination. Sometimes, a man seeks the nomina¬ 
tion because he is ambitious to hold an honored 
office; sometimes, because he is fired with zeal to do 
his state a service; sometimes, a group of people 


*Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, New Mexico, Nevada 
and Utah. 



THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


181 


desire to promote some idea and mutually agree upon 
a man to lead them. There are always plenty of 
candidates for the important offices. 

The Convention.—If the nomination is to be by a 
convention, the energy of the person seeking nomina¬ 
tion must be spent on securing the election of dele¬ 
gates from the different counties or districts who will 
be favorable to him. He must have friends who will 
look after his interests everywhere. Usually several 
candidates have some delegates in the convention and 
if no one candidate has a majority, the voting is con¬ 
tinued until some candidates drop out and their sup¬ 
porters go to others, finally resulting in giving a ma¬ 
jority of votes for one candidate. Cases have been 
known where the deadlock continued for many ballots 
because each candidate’s friends stood firm, hoping 
that the others might give up. Often it happens 
in convention that the man who has a small number 
of votes in the beginning, finally becomes the one 
upon whom the delegates agree. Sometimes men 
have been nominated who had no votes at the be¬ 
ginning. Such persons are known as “dark horses.” 

When the nomination is made and all the candi¬ 
dates for state offices have been named and a plat¬ 
form adopted, the convention adjourns. Then comes 
the battle between the parties for the final election. 
We shall take up the methods of campaigning later. 

The Direct Primary.—The direct primary method 
of nominating candidates, now in force in forty-two 
states, is much simpler. It is merely an election 


182 


OUR AMERICA 


conducted like the regular election, and the person 
who receives the largest number of votes in each 
party in the state is the candidate of that party. All 
candidates are voted for, at one time, each voter 
voting the ballots of his own party. To be voted for 
at such an election, the candidate must usually have 
a petition bearing a large number of signatures pre¬ 
sented to the secretary of state before some specified 
time, prior to the primary.* 

Nomination of Candidates for President.—The 
nomination of candidates for president is carried on 
in a similar way but on a much more extensive scale. 
The issues are more clearly marked and the candi¬ 
dates are better known. During the time a cam¬ 
paign for a presidential nomination is on, the country 
is interested from one end to the other. There are 
usually several candidates in each prominent party. 
The states which have some prominent man usually 
present him as a “favorite son” though he may not 
get many votes in other states. 

The convention is made up of delegates from each 
state. The rule is, generally, to allow to each state 
two delegates for each senator and representative in 
Congress. A few delegates are elected also from 
Alaska, Porto Rico, the Philippines and Hawaii. The 
delegates are, in some cases, elected by the whole 

♦In the closed primary, the voter must declare to which party 
he belongs and vote that ticket. In the open primary, a voter 
votes for whichever party he pleases without the knowledge of 
any one. 



THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


183 


state, but usually four are elected by the state and 
two are elected by each congressional district. In 
the Republican convention, under their rules, it takes 
a majority of the delegates, while in the Democratic 
convention it takes two-thirds of the delegates to 
nominate a candidate. 

Having been elected, the delegates come to the 
convention, pledged, usually, to support a certain 
candidate. The friends of each candidate are active. 
Each has headquarters where his friends gather for 
conference and work. It is an exciting scene when a 
thousand delegates and tens of thousands of friends 
and visitors gather at a convention to select a candi¬ 
date for president, thereby conferring the highest 
honor that the party can give. 

The Principal Contests.—^The principal contests 
of the convention are over the adoption of the plat¬ 
form and the nomination of a presidential candidate. 
A candidate for vice-president is also named but the 
contest is not very lively until after the president is 
nominated. Often the candidate for vice-president is 
one of the defeated candidates for president or else 
he is picked to represent another section of the coun¬ 
try from that of the candidate for president. 

Methods of Selecting Delegates.—Delegates to 
national conventions are chosen in some states by 
the convention method and in some by the voters, 
voting directly. The names of candidates are put 
on the ballot in many states and the voter signifies 
his choice and at the same time votes for delegates. 


154 


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The delegates in such cases are morally bound to sup* 
port the candidate who receives the largest number 
of votes. They usually do so, but if there is a dead¬ 
lock and no one can get enough votes to be nomi¬ 
nated, the delegates who are thus instructed must 
change their votes. 

The Platform.—Before nominating candidates, the 
party decides upon a platform—that is, a statement 
of issues with the views which the party supports. 
This is to tell the voters for what the party will 
stand if their candidates are elected. 

The Campaign for Election.—The national con¬ 
ventions are held usually in June. Then follows a 
period of quiet during which the parties organize 
and get ready for the great event of the campaign. 
The candidates are notified by special committees 
and the occasion is made important by the opportuni¬ 
ty which it gives to the candidate to sound in his 
speech of acceptance the keynote of his campaign. 

Party Committee.—The organization of a party 
for a campaign is on a large scale. The national 
committee, consisting of one person from each state, 
is in full charge of the campaign. They elect a 
chairman who becomes the manager and an execu¬ 
tive committee which meets frequently. The whole 
committee does not meet often. Each member is in 
his own state attending to the campaign there. In 
each state, there is a state committee which looks 
after the campaign in the state. There is a county 
committee in every county which works for the state 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


185 


committee and also looks after the interests of the 
county ticket of the party in the county. A precinct 
committeeman in every voting precinct completes 
the organization. The whole makes one great 
machine from the smallest precinct up to the chair¬ 
man of the national committee. 

The duty of these committees is to see that the 
party workers are busy, working for the success of 
the party. They distribute campaign speeches, ar¬ 
range for political meetings and organize clubs. They 
canvass the voters to learn how they stand and then 
try to convince the doubtful ones. On election day 
the precinct committeemen, with their workers, watch 
at the polls to prevent frauds and work to get the 
voters out to vote. The most successful workers aim 
to get their own party members out early. A record 
is kept and the doubtful ones are then looked after. 
Late in the day when it is found that some have not 
voted, a special effort is made to get them to the 
polls. 

People Should Vote Without Urging.—Good citi¬ 
zens must wonder why all of this activity is needed 
to get people out to vote. It is unfortunate that 
some citizens are so careless about their political du¬ 
ties. In spite of all efforts, thousands fail to vote at 
every election for no reason except ignorance and 
indifference. 

Corrupt Practises.—Some party workers are often 
engaged in dishonest work in buying voters; paying 
a day’s wages in order to get some men to vote; 


186 


OUR AMERICA 


paying fares of voters to the polls; preventing others 
from voting by threats and otherwise preventing a 
fair election. Conditions are better now than they 
used to be because the secret ballot makes it impos¬ 
sible to see how a man votes. Occasionally it is 
shown that the worst kind of criminal practises are 
still carried on, such as buying votes; voting more 
than once; stuffing the ballot box; counting more 
votes than were cast; and driving voters away by 
threats or actual violence. 

Honest Elections Needed.—Good government re¬ 
quires that elections be honest. The people are select¬ 
ing the managers of their business and anything 
which prevents a free choice is wholly wrong. Some 
people who seek to gain advantage from getting the 
offices, pay money to win; but when such persons 
win, the interests of the people suffer. 

Election Officials.—The election itself is conducted 
by officers who are appointed or elected for the pur¬ 
pose. Each precinct or election district has its own 
election officers, which consist usually of election 
inspectors and judges or clerks. They guard the 
ballots put into the boxes or take care of the voting 
machine if one is used and at the close of the polls 
they count and tally the votes cast. The results are 
then sent by them to the county canvassing officer 
or board and the totals for the county made up. 
These returns are then sent to the state election 
board or to the secretary of state where the total 
vote of the state is counted. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


187 


How the Result is Determined.-—In case of state 
officers, the person who receives the largest number 
of votes is declared elected. In the case of the presi¬ 
dent or vice-president, the person who gets the 
largest number of votes in a state carries that state 
and its electoral vote is cast for him. The final elec¬ 
tion of the president is determined by the electoral 
vote of all the states and not by the total vote cast in 
the country. A candidate must receive a majority of 
all of the electoral votes to be elected.* 

Nomination and Election of Local Officers.—^The 
nomination and election of county, city and township 
officers are conducted in a similar manner and usually 
at the same times as the state officers. It is, however, 
becoming customary to have city elections and elec¬ 
tion of judges held at different times from state and 
national elections so that voters will more freely 
vote for good men without regard to their party. 
In many places, the ballot for such officers is non¬ 
partisan—that is, there are no party nominations and 
no indication on the ballot as to what party a candi¬ 
date belongs. 

In nearly all states, the nomination of county, 
city and township officers is now made by the direct 
primary. The person who receives the largest num¬ 
ber of votes is nominated by his party in the primary 
and likewise the person receiving the highest vote in 
the election is elected to the office. 

♦For the exact method, see the U. S. Constitutional Amendment 
Xo. 12, p. 379. 



188 


OUR AMERICA 


Nominations and Elections by Less Than a Major¬ 
ity. —In nominations and elections by a plurality 
vote, it often occurs that the person chosen does 
not have anything like a majority of the votes. If 
there are four candidates for an office and the first 
receives ten thousand votes, the second nine thou¬ 
sand five hundred votes, the third eight thousand 
seven hundred votes, and the fourth eight thousand 
votes, the person elected receives only a little over 
twenty-five per cent, of the votes. This is not ma¬ 
jority rule. 

Remedies for Minority Elections. —Many devices 
have been invented to insure that the winner be the 
choice of a majority. The three principal devices 
are the following: 

(1) The double election is one method. Thus in 
the case above cited, a second election would be held 
and at that election the two highest candidates only 
would be voted for. One would then receive a ma¬ 
jority. 

(2) The second choice plan is sometimes provided, 
under which each voter votes not only for his first 
choice but also for his second choice. Then, if no one 
has a majority of first choice votes the second choices 
are added to the first choices to decide. 

(3) Another method of election to city councils 
or commissions is by what is called ‘‘proportional rep¬ 
resentation.’’ This system combines the second choice 
with a plan to have all important factions represented 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


189 


in the council. This system can be best explained by 
an example. Suppose there are ten candidates for five 
places in a city council. Each voter votes for one can¬ 
didate. If tv^o thousand seven hundred votes are cast, 
the quota or number of votes necessary to elect is two 
hundred and seventy-one. Any candidate who gets 
two hundred and seventy-one votes is elected. The 
low man is dropped and the second choice votes of 
his supporters are distributed among the other can¬ 
didates according as they were voted. Whenever any 
of the candidates reach two hundred and seventy- 
one votes, he is declared elected. When all but the 
number to be elected are eliminated, the remainder 
are elected whether they all receive the full quota of 
two hundred and seventy-one or not. 

The method of figuring the vote under this sys¬ 
tem is not easy to understand, but, in practise, it 
has not resulted in difficulties. The merit of the sys¬ 
tem is claimed to be that each party can be repre¬ 
sented in proportion to its voting strength. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

What are the qualifications for voting in your state? 
What persons are not allowed to vote ? 

What is the advantage of requiring the payment of taxes 
before voting? 

What are the merits of an educational test for voting? 

Do the political parties in your state nominate candidates 
for office by the direct primary system or by the conven¬ 
tion system? 


190 


OUR AMERICA 


What advantage is there in electing one man and leaving 
him to make appointments of the rest over the election of 
several officers? 

Should delegates to a party convention be apportioned 
according to population or according to the number of 
voters of the party? 

Explain the electoral system by which the president and 
vice-president are elected. 

In 1888, Grover Cleveland received over 100,000 more 
votes than Benjamin Harrison, yet Harrison was elected. 
How did that happen ? 

What is a plurality? A majority? Why is election by 
a plurality not a fair method? 

Explain the second choice method of voting. What are 
its advantages? 

Is it right for any person to receive his railroad fare to 
and from the polls on election day? 

Find the exact way in which party committees are organ¬ 
ized in your county, city and state. 

Visit the polling place in your election district on election 
day and make a report on the way the election is conducted. 

Nearly all of the states require that a voter be registered 
some time before election day. Why is that desirable? 

All of the states have a secret ballot. What are the 
advantages of the secret ballot? 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

Resolved that the direct primary method of nominating 
officials is preferable to the convention system. 

Resolved that the age limit for voters should be reduced 
to eighteen years. 

Resolved that a voter who fails to vote should lose his 
right to vote. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


191 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Bryce, American Commonwealth. 

Vol. 2, Chap. LXIX “National Nominating Conven¬ 
tions/' 

Chap. LXX “The Nominating Conventions at Work.” 
Chap. LXXI “The Presidential Campaign." 

Election laws of your state. 

Ray, Introduction to Political Parties and Practical 
Politics. 

Chap. VI “Nominations by Direct Primary." 

Chap. IX “Party Machines." 

Chap. X “Campaign Methods." 

Chap. XH “Suffrage Qualifications." 

Chap. XHI “Elections and Ballots." 

Woodburn, Political Parties and Party Problems in the 
United States. 

Chap. XH “The Composition of National Convene 
tions." 

Chap. XHI “National Conventions of Today." 

Chap. XIV “The Conduct of the Campaign." 

Chap. XVI “An Honest Ballot." 

Chap. XXI “Primary Election Reforms." 

Commons, Proportional Representation. 

Debaters’'Handbook, Womam Suffrage. 

Debaters’ Handbook, Direct Primaries) 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Proportional Representation League. 

National American Woman Suffrage Association. 
National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage. 
Secretary of state (your state) for election laws and 
returns on state and national elections. 

County clerk for sample ballots and county election re¬ 
turns. 






CHAPTER XVI 


CIVIL SERVICE 

There are no exact figures of the number of people 
employed in the work of government. The national 
government employs about a half million in Wash¬ 
ington and over the country to do its work. The 
states, cities, counties, towns and townships proba¬ 
bly employ three times that number for a part or all 
of the time. The matter of building and caring for 
roads and streets alone takes many thousands of 
men. The work of government covers so many fields 
that practically all kinds of workers are needed, from 
the highest skilled and professional workers to the 
men who work at common labor. 

Extent of Government Employment.—^The num¬ 
ber of persons whom the people choose by election 
is very small. The only officers of the United States 
elected by the people are the president and vice- 
president, the ninety-six senators and four hundred 
thirty-five representatives. Each person helps to 
elect only five federal officers, president, vice-presi¬ 
dent, two senators and a representative. The rest 
are selected by appointment. A large part of the 
officers in counties and townships are elected directly 
by the people, and states and cities elect a large num- 

192 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


193 


ber of officers. But the total of the elected officials is 
only a mere fraction of the whole. Probably two 
million men are appointed or hired to do the public 
work by those whom we elect. 

It is evident that the problem of appointing- and 
hiring men for government work is a very big one. 
It is a matter of the very greatest importance that 
good men be secured for all kinds of work and that 
means be provided to secure efficient service from 
all. 

The Spoils Method.—The method in general use 
in appointing and hiring men for government work, 
has been the spoils method. The men elected to 
office by a political party have rewarded the members 
of their party by distributing the positions among 
them. Government positions have been wrongly 
looked upon as easy places where the pay was good 
and the work light and where no special knowledge 
or ability was required. Every time the control 
shifted from one party to another, the old employees 
were turned out and new ones put in their places. 
This was called rotation in office. In most of the 
states and cities of this country, that is the system 
which prevails to-day. Every change of party puts 
out the experienced workers and puts new untried 
people in their places. 

The spoils system began in the early part of the 
century when President Andrew Jackson turned out 
most of the office holders and put his political friends 
in their places. Each president afterward followed 


194 


GUR AMERICA 


the custom, and the same system was extended to 
the state, city and local governments. It was so 
unbusinesslike thus to handle affairs that thinking 
men began to see the folly of using the positions in 
the government service as a means of rewarding 
political workers instead of serving the people. The 
demand grew strong for civil service reform. The 
central idea of such reform was that public office or 
position is a public trust and that all persons should 
be selected for merit and retained as long as they do 
their duty well. It was pointed out that no business 
concern could prosper if it used the spoils method 
of filling its positions. 

Civil Service Reform.—The first step was taken 
by the United States in 1883, when the Civil Service 
Law was passed which classified the positions in the 
various departments of the federal government and 
required that persons appointed to certain positions 
show evidence of qualification. The president was 
given power to add other positions and during the 
years since, more than nine-tenths of all positions 
in the United States government have been placed 
under the merit system. The states of New York, 
Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Wisconsin, Illi¬ 
nois, Kansas, California, Colorado and Connecticut 
have placed the merit system in operation for a large 
part of their employees, and many large cities have 
followed the same example. Nearly all large cities 
now select policemen and firemen without regard to 
politics and remove them only for cause. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


195 


Examinations.—Appointments to the civil service 
by means of examinations are no\v made for 
many thousands of positions. The examinations are 
held by the United States Civil Service Commission 
for positions under the federal government, and by 
the state and city commissions in those states and 
cities which have this system, for positions in the 
state and city service. These commissions give such 
tests as they think will best prove the qualifications 
of the applicants. In some cases, the test is simple 
and easy. For some positions, such as that of labor¬ 
ers, the fitness of the applicant is easily determined; 
while for highly skilled positions, the commission 
may need to give thorough tests of knowledge, ex¬ 
perience, general ability and fitness. 

Department Clerks.—For ordinary clerks in the 
department at Washington, the examination is de¬ 
signed to test the educational qualifications of the 
applicant. The test requires an examination in the 
following subjects: (Figures indicate relative weight 
on a scale of 100.) Spelling (10); arithmetic (25); 
penmanship (15); report writing (25); copying and 
correcting manuscript (15); geography and civil 
government of the United States (10). 

Policemen.—The usual method of examining 
policemen for appointment is as follows: First the 
application blank filled by the candidate shows his 
general character and experience. Second, a mental 
examination tests his general ability. Arithmetic 
problems are generally given because they form a 


196 


OUR AMERICA 


convenient test. City information is another impor¬ 
tant part in testing the applicant’s knov^ledge of his 
city. Report writing and questions on the rules and 
regulations constitute the other principal elements 
of the examination. Physical fitness is, of 
course, also required, and the physical examination 
is rigid. 

Firemen.—Similarly, in examinations for firemen, 
there is a test of the general mental ability of the 
applicant and a rigid test of the physical strength 
and ability of the applicant. 

Highly Skilled and Professional Positions.—For 
the highly skilled and important positions, the com¬ 
mission usually requires a test of experience, be¬ 
sides an educational test, and also recommendations 
from those who are in a position to know the general 
ability of the applicant. The questions in such exam¬ 
inations are not mere tests of information but often 
are intended to show what the applicant can do in 
broader lines. The examination for librarian of the 
Chicago public library, a few years ago, asked among 
other things, that the applicant write an extended 
statement about the problems confronting the library 
and the best way to meet them. Since this would 
be the first problem confronting the person chosen, 
its value as a test is plain. 

The Eligible List.—Those who pass the examina¬ 
tion are placed on the eligible list for appointment 
and when a vacancy occurs the person who is to 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


19y 


make the appointment does so from the eligible list. 
The civil service commissions do not make the ap¬ 
pointments. They merely give the examinations 
and list the persons w^ho pass the examinations. Ap¬ 
pointments are made by the persons at the head of 
the department in which the person is to be appoint¬ 
ed. 

When a vacancy occurs or a new office is created 
the board or chief in charge of the department re¬ 
quests a list of the persons who have passed the 
examination for the kind of position to be filled. If 
there is no one already on the list for the place, the 
commission holds an examination. 

Sometimes the entire list of eligibles is given and 
the appointing officer selects any one he chooses 
whether he is the person having the highest standing 
or not. Under this plan every person who is ap¬ 
pointed must have, at least, a certain minimum of 
standing; but the person appointed need not be the 
best. This plan has not proved 3 atisfactory. 

The usual method is for the commission to submit 
the names of the three persons having the highest 
standing and the appointing officer selects one of the 
three. Then, there is, also, the plan of submitting 
only the name of the person having the highest 
standing. This latter plan has the advantage of 
preventing any possibility of favoritism in making 
the appointment. The one who stands highest al¬ 
ways gets the place. There are advantages in all 


198 


OUR AMERICA 


three of these plans, but if the examination has been 
a fair test of ability, it is the best plan that the ap¬ 
pointments be made in the order of standing. 

The Advantages of the Merit System.—The merit 
system has many advantages over the spoils system. 

First—Men are appointed to places because they 
have proved that they are the best qualified and not 
because they are political friends of the person making 
the appointment. This is the method of filling places 
in all successful business. No business could be suc¬ 
cessful if the important positions were filled by 
friends of the manager without regard to their abil¬ 
ity in the business. 

Second—Under the merit system every person is 
continued in his position as long as he is able to 
perform the duties properly. He is removed only 
for cause. Employees therefore have an opportunity 
to learn the work they are doing thoroughly, and 
become expert at it. No employee will take pride in 
his work if he know:s that he may be removed with¬ 
out cause. 

Third—Promotion and honors are the principal 
incentive to cause men to work. The merit sys¬ 
tem stimulates men to do their best in the hope that 
they may get the rewards. Wherever civil service re¬ 
form has been well established, all promotions are 
made on merit. The chance is thus given to every 
one to rise in the service. 

Fourth—The merit system stimulates people to 
prepare for the civil service as a life career. Under 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


199 


the spoils system, no one would prepare himself 
especially for a government position, because some 
unprepared politician might have a better chance 
of getting the place. He would not be sure that if 
he got it he could keep it beyond the next election. 
Under 4he merit system, any person may prepare to 
serve his government in any one of the hundreds of 
promising fields open to him, knowing that his own 
merit would be the test in getting the place and in 
holding it. One of the greatest needs of the coun¬ 
try is to get the best men to serve the people, and 
under the merit system this is possible. In Germany, 
England and . France, where the merit system pre¬ 
vails, the highest grade of men go into the public 
service as a life career. That ought to be so every¬ 
where in America. It is so in many branches of the 
United States government service and is developing 
in the states and cities. 

Pensions for Government Employees.—One of 
the difficulties which the civil service has had, is 
that of the employee who has become unable or is too 
old to do the work of his place efficiently. It is un¬ 
fair to turn him out after long service and yet to 
keep him means that the work will not be done so 
well as it might be. The pension plan is, therefore, 
suggested. Under this plan, any person may retire 
after a certain age or when he is unable to perform 
his duties. He receives a pension as long as he lives. 
The money to pay the pension comes from assess¬ 
ments upon all the people in the service and from 


£00 


OUR AMERICA 


the government. Such pensions are already quite 
generally provided for teachers, policemen and fire¬ 
men, and definite plans are under way to create a 
pension system for all persons working for the 
United States. Many of the big corporations and 
most of the European countries have such a ^system 
by which they pension their old employees. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Describe the method of appointing the persons who do 
the work of the county in which you live. The city. The 
state. 

What are the qualifications which a business man or a 
farmer requires when hiring a man to do his work? 

What harmful effects come from ^'rotation in office”? 

Is a written examination a fair test of a person’s ability? 
What other evidences of qualifications should be required? 

Which is preferable, the selection of the highest person 
on the list, the selection of one of the three highest, or 
the selection of any one who passes the examination? 

Should a person, once appointed, hold the place indefi¬ 
nitely ? 

How are policemen and firemen selected in the city in 
which you live ? 


QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

Resolved that the selection of all public employees should 
be based upon a thorough examination of their qualifica¬ 
tions. 

Resolved that a system of old age pensions be provided 
and that all persons over seventy years of age be retired 
from service on a pension. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


201 


WHERE TO FIND FURTHER INFORMATION 

U. S. Civil Service Commission. 

Manual of Examination and Annual Report. 

State Civil Service Commission. 

Manual of Examination and Regular Reports. 

City and County Civil Service Commission (Where 
existent). 

Manual of Examination. 

Bryce, American Commonwealth. 

Vol. 2, Chap. XLV “Spoils.’’ 

Woodburn, Political Parties and Party Problems. 

Chap. XVIII. 

Ray, Introduction to Political Parties and Practical 
Politics. 

Chap. XIV “The Spoils System.” 

Chap XV “Civil Service Reform.” 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

National Civil Service Reform League. 

National Municipal League. 

United States Civil Service Commission. 

State and Local Civil Service Commission, 


CHAPTER XVII 


DISCHARGING OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES 

The business of conducting the common affairs ol 
the people of each community and of each state and 
of the nation is very large. As we learned in the 
last chapter it takes probably two million people to 
perform the tasks of government in all its branches. 
This is a great army of men and women. They are 
the people’s employees. The people in this country 
are the employers. 

The Task of Managing Government Employees.— 

The task of managing two million employees of a 
single person would be easy compared with the dif¬ 
ficulties of management of the same number of em¬ 
ployees by a half dozen employers. Likewise, the task 
of managing by a half dozen is simple compared with 
the difficulties which the people as an employer have 
in seeing that they get proper service from their 
employees. An individual or head of a business has 
power over his employees and may discharge or trans¬ 
fer any one whenever it will benefit the business. The 
people can not do that because they have power only 
for one day—that is, election day, when they are 
casting their ballots. Elaborate machinery is, there¬ 
fore, necessary to enable the people to keep constant 
202 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


203 


control over their servants in order to get the best 
possible work. 

People Control Through Elected Officials.—The 
people elect certain officers, as we have seen, and 
leave to these elected officials the appointment of 
subordinates. It is through the elected officials that 
the people hold control over the appointed employees. 
The important question to us is, therefore, that of 
controlling the elected officials. 

Incentives in Public 'Work.—There are two incen¬ 
tives which make men work hard in any employment 
—the hope of promotion and the fear of discharge or 
being set back. The person who works for the peo¬ 
ple in doing the tasks of government is particularly 
subject to these incentives. Promotions and dis¬ 
charges are given more attention in public employ¬ 
ment than in the case of private employment. 

Failure to Reelect.—The elected official is held 
accountable because he knows that his successes 
will be heard about and his failures known and 
when his term of office expires, the people will judge 
whether he has done their work to suit them. One 
way to discharge such an employee is to fail to re¬ 
elect him at the close of the term. One way to 
show that his work has been approved is to give him 
a good vote for reelection. This is the method of 
control used with respect to all officers who are 
elected by the people. 

It is a simple method. We hire a man to work 
for us for a certain length of time. At the end of 


204 


OUR AMERICA 


the time he decides whether he wants to try to con¬ 
tinue at the job and we decide whether we want to 
keep him. 

This serves one purpose, but it does not help much 
in the case of the man who, before the end of his 
term, proves to be corrupt or incompetent in office. 
Such an officer may be discharged at the end of his 
term by the voters, but he may do m.uch harm before 
his term ends. Something is needed to meet this 
danger. The people must have means at hand at all 
times to call their employees to account. These are 
furnished by the method of impeachment and lately 
by the recall. 

Impeachment.—The only method employed for 
many years in discharging corrupt and incompetent 
officers was that of impeachment. This process 
means that the officer is charged with grave offenses 
and is tried before a court. If he is found guilty of 
the charges, he is, thereby, put out of office. The 
president, vice-president and all civil officers of the 
United States may be impeached for ‘treason, bribery 
and other high crimes and misdemeanors.” The 
charges are brought by the House of Representatives. 
The Senate acts as the trial court and if two-thirds 
vote for conviction, the officer is removed. No presi¬ 
dent or vice-president has ever been removed from 
office. Owing to political differences, President John¬ 
son was impeached by the House of Representatives 
and tried by the Senate in 1867 and only one vote 
was lacking lor a conviction. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


205 


Governors and elective officers of states are in 
most states subject to impeachment. In some states, 
the House of Representatives brings the charges 
and the Senate tries the case; in others, the Supreme 
Court tries the case; and in New York, the Senate 
and the highest court—the court of appeals—sit as 
the trial court. County and city officers may also 
be impeached. The process is usually carried on be¬ 
fore the courts of the county or district. In any 
case, conviction means removal from office. 

Impeachment is a very severe as well as a slow and 
difficult process and is resorted to only in grave 
cases. It is not a satisfactory method of holding 
officials to account in ordinary cases. Serious crimes 
usually have to be charged. An officer may be 
wholly incompetent and yet honest and he could not 
be charged with offenses of such a character as to 
warrant impeachment. A simpler method has been 
sought and many states and cities have adopted the 
recall as a means of discharging faithless and incom¬ 
petent officials. 

The Recall.—^The recall is a method by which the 
people may at any time take a vote on the question 
whether an official shall be discharged. The method 
followed is in most cases as follows: A certain per¬ 
centage of the voters—usual twenty-five per cent.— 
sign a petition asking that an election ber'held to de¬ 
termine whether a certain officer shall/be removed 
from office. The petition must state the/causes for re¬ 
moval. The officer has a right to answer the charges. 


206 


OUR AMERICA 


Candidates are nominated against the official. The 
election -is held, and if a majority vote against the 
accused official, he is thereby removed and the can¬ 
didate securing the largest number of votes is de¬ 
clared elected. In practise, it is usually required that 
a man be given a chance of at least one or two 
years before any recall can be started and if the at¬ 
tempt is made once and fails, then no further attempt 
can be made during his term. 

The recall has the advantage of giving the people 
a close rein on their officers. It- is a constant spur 
to the official to satisfy the desires of his employer— 
the people. It has the disadvantage of being subject 
to unfair use by political enemies who trump up 
charges—perhaps against reasonably good officers. 
An official may be elected by one political party and 
very soon, perhaps, be compelled to defend himself 
at a recall election forced by the other party for 
purely partisan purposes. It is the abuse of the re¬ 
call and not its use that is unfair. 

Removal by the Governor.—Another method of 
discharging officers elected by the people as their 
employees is that of removal by some higher official 
for a cause after a hearing. Thus the county sheriff, 
mayors of cities, and certain other local officers in 
New York may be removed by the governor. In 
many of the states, similar powers are exercised as 
to certain officials by the governor. Charges are 
made in such cases to the governor, who makes an 
investigation, gives the official a chance to present 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


207 


his case and then decides the matter. This is an 
easy method of making charges, but the charge must 
be quite serious to get consideration from a fair 
governor. It was intended against the corrupt 
official and not against the man who is incompetent 
or who is not so good as he ought to be. 

Removal of Subordinates.—When we come to the 
officers and employees appointed by the elected of¬ 
ficials, the method of discharging is comparatively 
simple. The man who appoints usually has the power 
to discharge. So much political favoritism has at 
times come in, however, in causing competent em¬ 
ployees to be discharged and incompetent, or at least 
not so competent, employees to be put in their places, 
that restrictions have gradually been placed on the 
power to remove. ‘‘No removals except for cause’' 
is coming to be the rule in progressive states and 
cities and in the national service. 

The president of the United States, with the ap¬ 
proval of the Senate, appoints the members of his 
cabinet and a vast number of other officers. The 
cabinet being his personal advisors, the president 
has the right to appoint whom he pleases and to re¬ 
move them whenever they are not in accbrd with 
him. The same may be said with reference to many 


other officers in important departments. /The presi¬ 
dent may, therefore, remove any member/of the cab¬ 
inet and many other officers without/giving any 
cause. Since he may remove the chie/s of depart¬ 
ments without cause, it gives him p(wer to cause 


208 


OUR AMERICA 


the removal of many of the subordinates simply by 
directing the chief of the department to remove them. 
The governor may, likewise, remove officials ap¬ 
pointed by him, but usually he must prove the cause 
of removal. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

What is the usual method by which employers dismiss 
employees ? 

Why can not the methods usually employed in business 
be used to discharge government officers and employees? 

Why is the method of impeachment of officers inade¬ 
quate ? 

What dangers arise from giving an officer arbitrary 
power to dismiss employees ? 

What defects of the recall method can be mentioned? 

What are the advantages of the recall ? 

QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that there should be no removals from public 
employment except for cause after a hearing on the charges. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Bryce, American Commonwealth. 

Vol. 2, Chap. LXV. “Spoils.’’ 

Ray, Introduction to Political Parties and Practical 
Politics. 

Chap. ^ XVH “The Responsibility of Public Officers, 
Their Removal by Impeachment and Recall.” 
Woodburn, Political Parties and Problems in the United 
States. 

Chap. XXII “The Initiative, Referendum and Recall: 
The Oregon Experiment.” 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


209 


Munro, Initiative, Referendum and Recall, 
Chap. XIL 
Chap. XIII. 

Chap. XIV. 

Chap. XV. 

Debaters’ Handbook, Recall. 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Civil Service Reform Association. 

United States Civil Service Commission. 

State or City Civil Service Commission (if there is one). 


CHAPTER XVIII 


LAW-MAKING BODIES 

First in importance in the process of conducting 
our affairs is the determining of the will of the peo¬ 
ple and its declaration by authority, or the making 
of laws. Whatever we propose to provide for, 
whether it be the building of a road, a schoolhouse, 
or sewage system, either the people or some one 
having authority from them must first decide to do 
it, then provide for meeting the cost and declare how 
it shall be done. 

The Process of Making Laws.—This process of 
legislation is carried on in this country by several 
agencies. What the country as a whole shall do, is 
determined by the Congress of the United States; 
what the state shall do, is determined by the state 
legislature; what the city shall do, is determined by 
the city council or the city commission. In every 
case, these bodies are made up of representatives of 
the people selected by the people. 

Congress.—Congress is composed of two houses, 
the Senate and the House of Representatives. The 
Senate consists of ninety-six members, two from 
each state elected by the people of the state. For¬ 
merly, they were elected by the state legislatures, 
210 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


211 


but it was found that they did not represent the peo¬ 
ple closely enough and they were made elective by 
the people. The Senate was supposed to be the rep¬ 
resentatives of the states, hence, an equal number 
was given to each state on the theory that the states 
were equal regardless of size. The House of Repre¬ 
sentatives consists at present of four hundred and 
thirty-five members elected from districts into which 
each state is divided. 

Apportionment of Representatives.—After each 
census, Congress determines how many members 
there shall be in the House and fixes the number that 
shall be elected from each state on the basis of popu¬ 
lation. At present, one representative is elected for 
each two hundred and thirty thousand people, but as 
each state has at least one representative, it happens 
that such member might be elected to represent a 
comparatively small number of people, as, for in¬ 
stance, in Nevada which has only about sixty thou¬ 
sand population. An exact apportionment is of 
course impossible, so the effort is to make as nearly 
equal distribution as possible. After Congress has 
determined how many members are to be elected 
from each state, the state legislature divides the state 
into districts as nearly equal in population as practi¬ 
cable. 

Sessions of Congress.—Congress meets every year 
on the first Monday in December. The session, be¬ 
ginning in the odd years, lasts as long as there is 
business to do. The session in the other years ends 


212 


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March fourth following, because the terms of office of 
the representatives and a part of the senators expire 
on that date and a new Congress comes into office. 
The president may call the Congress together in 
special session whenever he desires. Representatives 
are elected for two years and senators for six years. 
The terms of the senators are so arranged that about 
one-third go out of office every two years. 

Powers of Congress.—Congress is the body to 
determine the will of the whole people and declare it 
in laws on the subjects over which the federal gov¬ 
ernment has control. We have already seen that 
these powers have to do principally with foreign af¬ 
fairs: the means of defense—the army and navy; 
trade among the states and with foreign countries; 
building of public buildings such as post-offices, court¬ 
houses and custom houses, and of public works such 
as harbor and river improvements to aid navigation; 
the operation of post-offices and certain other gov¬ 
ernment enterprises such as irrigation works, the 
Panama Canal, and the Alaskan railway; the care and 
disposal of public lands; dealings with the Indians; 
educational work in agriculture, road making, educa¬ 
tional methods; and the soldiers’ pension system. 
The power of Congress is very great because of the 
size of the nation and its enormous interests. Con¬ 
gress is powerful, too, because it may regulate all 
traffic between the states. Thus, while it would 
have no authority over matters wholly within a sin- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


213 


gle state, it can prevent any product from being 
taken from state to state. As an example, it can not 
stop the existence of a saloon in a state but it can 
prevent liquor from being sent into any state. 

Because of this power to regulate all traffic be¬ 
tween states, Congress can prevent the production of 
impure foods and drugs by requiring that all goods 
shipped from state to state be inspected for purity; 
they can prevent the shipment of liquor or the prod¬ 
ucts of prison labor from state to state. Recently it 
has been proposed that any goods manufactured by 
child labor be prohibited from being sent from one 
state to another. It will be easily seen that this 
power is effective because under modern conditions 
a large part of the goods we use, go from one state 
to another. 

Congress can likewise exercise great power in 
cases of animal disease by making laws for quaran¬ 
tine against disease. When there is an epidemic of 
animal disease in a state or a community, the Bu¬ 
reau of Animal Industry at Washington has power 
from Congress to prevent any shipment of animals 
from the infected region into another state. 

The State Legislatures.—Every one of the forty- 
eight states has a legislature consisting of two houses 
to pass laws. One house is called the Senate and 
the other is usually called the House of Representa¬ 
tives. They vary in number of members in each 
state. Some states still cling to large membership. 


214 


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The usual number is from one hundred to one hun¬ 
dred and fifty in the House and from twenty-five to 
fifty in the Senate. 

Powers of State Legislatures.—The powers are 
about the same in all states. The legislature has 
power over everything which is not given to Con¬ 
gress, that is, after deducting the express powers 
given to Congress, all the other things which the 
people have to do for themselves are in the hands of 
the state legislature, except where either the United 
States or state constitution has expressly declared 
that the legislature shall not have a certain power or 
when the state constitution has expressly given power 
to cities over certain of their own affairs, in which case 
the state legislature can not interfere. These limita¬ 
tions are few, however, and the legislatures of most 
states have a wide range of powers covering such 
matters as keeping order, the control of property, 
the settlement of estates, education, charities, roads, 
regulation of business, control of public utilities, etc. 
Measured by its direct importance to the people in 
their every-day affairs, the work of the state legisla¬ 
ture is more important to them than the work of 
Congress. 

Apportionment of Members of State Legislatures. 

—Members of the state legislature in both houses 
are elected from districts which are as nearly equal 
in population, or in some cases equal in voters, as 
possible. The theory of representation is always 
that each representative represents an equal number 



Copyright by G, V. BucK, Y/ashington, D. C. 
U. S. House of Representatives 



Copyright by Underwood and Underwood 
U. S. Senate Chamber 













New State Capitol, Madison, Wisconsin 




































THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


215 


of people. There are a few exceptions to equality. 
We have seen that each state elects two senators in 
the United States Congress regardless of size. The 
state of Rhode Island has one senator in the state 
senate from each town (township) whether it is a 
country township with only a few people or the city 
of Providence with over two hundred thousand peo¬ 
ple. 

Generally speaking, the principle of equal repre¬ 
sentation is followed. The states are divided into 
senatorial districts and representative districts ac¬ 
cording to population. The districts, usually, follow 
county lines. If a county is entitled to more than 
one senator or representative, it is subdivided. If 
one county is not entitled to a member, it is joined 
with a neighboring county. Since the districts fol¬ 
low county lines, it is not possible to get an exact 
equality, but a reasonable equality is all that fairness 
requires. 

The districts are fixed by the legislature after the 
United States census or after a state census. The dis¬ 
tricts are readjusted every few years—usually every 
ten years. It will be readily seen that such changes 
must be made frequently because population shifts 
so rapidly. The growth of cities makes great changes 
in a few years. The importance of changes is aptly 
illustrated from the history of England where, for 
many years, up to 1832, no changes had been made 
in the districts from which members of Parliament 
were elected. The result was that some great cities 


OUR AMERICA 


ne 

had no members while in some places which elected 
members there were few people left. The same condi¬ 
tion exists in Germany to-day in the representation of 
the cities in the Reichstag—the legislative body of 
the empire. 

Gerrymandering.—In order to get political advan¬ 
tage the divisions of the state into congressional, 
senatorial, representative, or assembly districts, or 
of the city into wards, is often so made as to give 
the advantage to the party making the districts. This 
is called “gerrymandering.” The usual method is 
to group all of the territory which is strongly of the 
opposite party together and let those districts be 
conceded to that party. Then the rest of the dis¬ 
tricts will be safe. 

City Councils or Commissions.—In the cities, the 
body which determines the will of the people is the 
city council, or the city commission, as it is called in 
cities having what is known as the commission form 
of government. In early times, the city council was 
modeled on the state legislatures and there were two 
houses, corresponding to the Senate and Elouse of 
Representatives. This has been rapidly changing, 
and now there are very few cities which have two 
houses. The modern way is to put all power into 
the hands of a council of one house or a commission 
of three or five members who determine what shall 
be done. 

Powers of the City Council or Commission.—In 
order to understand the work which the city council 




THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


217 


has to do, we must consider the relation of the city 
to the state. We have already seen that the city is 
organized under state laws to do the special work 
which the city needs to have done for itself. In 
most of the states, the legislature has prescribed 
specifically the powers of the cities, but this has been 
so unfair to the cities that the idea of home rule, or 
the right of the people of a city to do all things 
which concern them alone, has been accepted as the 
best plan. 

Where the legislatures prescribe city powers spe¬ 
cifically, the city councils can do only the things which 
the state legislature has authorized them to do. 
Under this system, a city council may not pave its 
own streets unless the state legislature has express¬ 
ly authorized it, and then only in the exact way 
stated by the legislature. Under home rule, the city 
councils may do anything which concerns the city 
and is necessary for its welfare unless it is specifi¬ 
cally prohibited. This is the logical system. Those 
things which concern the city only, ought to be left 
to the city to do; those things which can not be done 
by the city alone or which concern more than the 
people of one city, should be done or controlled by 
the state legislature; and those things which con¬ 
cern more than one state and can not be done by one 
state, should be done by the nation. 

Apportionment of Members of City Council or 
Commission.—Members of city councils are often 
elected from wards of the city, but it is becoming the 


218 


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practise to have all the people of a city vote for each 
member. This is the case in all cities having the 
commission form of government. When the election 
is by wards, the same principle of equality of repre¬ 
sentation is followed. Each ward is supposed to 
have an equal number of people and each member, 
therefore, represents an equal number. 

Counties and Townships.—Counties and town¬ 
ships are mere districts of the state. They carry 
out the laws of the state as they apply to their own 
territory. The people of counties and townships 
do not determine their own wills through a legisla¬ 
tive body, except in very minor matters. The law 
for them is laid down by the state legislature and 
what they do in taking care of their own affairs is 
done according to the state law. Counties and town¬ 
ships build many works for common benefit and do 
many things, but they are nearly all done subject to 
the details of the state law. The officers and boards 
are not legislative officers, but executive or adminis- 
tratives bodies which we shall consider in a later 
chapter. There is a movement taking form to give 
home rule to counties so that they may be free to 
do the work which concerns them in their own way. 
This would be valuable to the large and populous 
counties; and a few counties in California already 
have home rule. 



THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


219 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

How many representatives in the United States House 
of Representatives are elected from your state? Who is 
your congressman? When was he elected? When does 
his term expire ? Who are the United States senators 
from your state ? 

Take a map of your state and indicate the boundaries 
of your congressional district. Also indicate the other con^ 
gressional districts. 

Are the districts nearly equal in population ? 

Why should representative districts be equal in popula¬ 
tion? 

On the map, indicate also the senatorial district from 
which your state senator is elected. Also indicate the 
district from which your representative in the state legis¬ 
lature is elected. 

How many members are there in the state Senate of your 
state ? In the House of Representatives or assembly ? What 
is their term of office? Salary? Do you know the name 
of your senator and representative in the state legislature? 

How many members are in your city council (if you 
live in a city) ? Are they elected by the whole city or 
by districts? If by districts, indicate on a map of the 
city the boundaries of the district. 

What is the total number of persons whom a voter in 
your community helps to elect to make laws in city, state 
and nation? 

Why is it important for the citizens to know the powers 
of each law-making body—the city council, state legislature, 
and Congress ? 

Make a list of the things which affect your community 
that the city does; that the state legislature does; that 
Congress does. (Confine this to things in which you have 
had experience.) 


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QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSStON 

Resolved that the Avork of the state legislature is of 
more consequence to our 'welfare than the work of the 
Congress of the United States. 

Resolved that the work of the city council or commission 
is of more consequence to our welfare than the work of 
the state legislature. (For city discussion.) 

WHERE TO FIND FURTHER INFORMATION 

Reinsch, American Legislatures and Legislative Methods, 
Bryce, American Commonwealth. 

Chap. X “The Senate.’' 

Chap. XHI “The House of Representatives.” 

Chap. XV “The Committees of Congress.” 

Chap. XL “State Governments—The Legislature.” 
Constitution of the United States, Appendix, Article I. 
Powers of Congress. 

The state constitution of your state, article relating to 
powers of the legislature. 

The city charter of your city. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

The senators from your state and representatives from 
your district in Congress. 

The state senator and representative from your district. 
State Legislative Reference Department or similar body. 
Members of the city council or commission. 


CHAPTER XIX 


HOW LAWS ARE MADE 

In the preceding chapter, the subject of law-mak¬ 
ing bodies was discussed. We shall now consider 
the way these bodies work and the way in which laws 
are adopted and become part of the rules which guide, 
control and help. 

Custom and Law.—It will make the matter clearer 
if we first fully understand what we mean by law 
and particularly what we mean by written law, which 
is the kind that our legislative bodies make. Law is 
a rule laid down by those in authority, which every 
one must follow. In this country, that authority is 
the people either acting directly through the initia¬ 
tive or through representatives in the state legisla¬ 
tures or United States Congress, city councils or com¬ 
missions. Formerly, law was merely custom, and 
even yet many of our most binding laws are custom. 
In many states, it is custom that a person turn to the 
right when meeting another, yet everybody does it 
and any one would be blamed who failed to follow 
the custom. 

In early times, also, custom was sufficient in pro¬ 
viding for public needs. If a building were needed 
for common uses, all joined and contributed labor 
221 


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and material in fair proportions. If a road was to be 
built or maintained, custom caused it to be done by 
those who benefited by it. But as public building 
and works increased, the community had to have 
better organization and as work became more spec¬ 
ialized, the people contributed money instead of join¬ 
ing to do the work. The result was that the law 
under which the work was carried on had to be writ¬ 
ten out; and the more complex the work became the 
more detail was needed in the law. So, to-day, we 
have elaborate laws in each state governing the con¬ 
struction of roads, streets, bridges, public buildings, 
drainage works and so on. 

Let us take an illustration which will show another 
reason for making laws; the subject of fish and 
game. When fish and game were plentiful, no re¬ 
strictions either by custom or law were placed upon 
hunting and fishing. Men caught and killed all they 
pleased. Finally, in many parts, game and fish be¬ 
came scarce. Some means had to be taken to pro¬ 
tect them or else there would soon be none at all. 
The people soon passed laws to prohibit hunting and 
fishing except in certain seasons, and later in some 
places prohibited any person from taking more than 
a certain amount of fish and game. At the same 
time, they provided means to hatch fish and breed 
game to keep up the supply. 

Progress Makes New Laws Necessary.—On 
many subjects, progress has made necessary the 
writing out of laws because custom was not sufifi- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


223 


cient for the time. The coming of the railroad made 
many new laws necessary; the street railway, inter- 
urban railroad, automobile, telephone, telegraph and 
moving-picture shows, all made necessary new rules 
or laws to govern the new conditions created by 
them. 

Progress in education makes the people demand 
better things and a whole new lot of laws are need¬ 
ed to meet the demands of a better educated people. 
One by one, the worst evils of vice and crime are 
being regulated and suppressed by the people through 
laws. Wherever custom has not been strong 
enough to keep a bad thing from being done, the 
people have acted through law to prevent it. 

The legislatures meet to deal with the new condi¬ 
tions which arise through new laws and to make 
changes in the old laws which experience has shown 
to be unsatisfactory. They also provide for any new 
public works which progress may demand. 

City Councils and Commissions.—City councils 
or commissions meet frequently in most cities. Us¬ 
ually, meetings are held every week or every two 
weeks, except during vacation periods. The mem¬ 
bers are on the ground, therefore, to handle a situa¬ 
tion as it arises. By their rules, a measure may us¬ 
ually be introduced at one meeting and passed at the 
succeeding meeting or the second meeting after¬ 
ward. When a measure is introduced in the coun¬ 
cil, it is referred to a committee which is supposed 
to make an investigation of it and to get the views 


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Making Laws 















THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


225 


of people who desire to express an opinion. There 
is not, usually, very much formality about the action 
of the city council. In its action, it is more like a 
school board or the board of directors of a business. 
In many cities which do not have home rule, the 
public takes little interest in the affairs of the city 
council, except on a few far-reaching subjects such 
as measures for the construction of important works 
requiring the spending of large sums of money, or 
the granting of rights in the streets to companies 
operating gas, water, electric light, heat and electric 
railway companies. The lack of interest is the most 
important cause of bad government in cities. 

The power of the council usually consists in pass¬ 
ing traffic ordinances, health regulations, food in¬ 
spection rules, and in prohibiting this or that prac¬ 
tise harmful to the safety, morals, health or welfare 
of the citizens. 

State Legislatures.—State legislation is the most 
important to us because of the range of subjects with 
which it deals and which affect us so closely. Where 
there is one subject of federal legislation of direct 
interest to us there are a score of subjects of state 
legislation which affect us directly. Moreover the 
most important city, county and township matters 
are subjects of state laws. 

The amount of business which confronts the legis¬ 
latures of the states every time they meet is very 
great. This is the result of progress and of educa¬ 
tion upon the needs of the time. The members are 


226 


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confronted with thousands of proposals for changes 
in laws or for new laws. 

Where do Proposals for New Laws Come From? 
—From what source do these proposals come? 

First—The member, himself, has ideas of changes 
which he wishes to make. In going over his district 
and conferring with men of all kinds, ideas gained 
take form in definite plans. He often advocates cer¬ 
tain things in order to win votes and then he feels 
in duty bound to try to put those things into laws. 

Second—Some public calamity, such as a flood or 
an epidemic, may have called attention strongly to 
the need for new laws.' The thought may be in 
everybody’s mind and the legislature is expected to 
express it in law. 

Third—Individuals or groups or societies which 
have been working on problems of public welfare 
such as child labor, playgrounds, public health, or 
charities bring forth the results of their thought, 
study and experience for new laws in order to better 
the conditions which they have discovered. 

Fourth—Public officials charged with the duty of 
doing the work provided for by law, may have dis¬ 
covered from their experience that changes or new 
laws are needed. From their practical experience, 
it is reasonable to expect that wise proposals will be 
made. 

Fifth—Previous legislatures may have worked on 
questions and finding them too complex may have 
appointed commissions or committees to study the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


227 


questions. These committees make reports which 
serve as guides to the legislators at the next session. 

Sixth—Private interests which seek to gain some 
advantage by change in a law present many bills, 
some of them fair and asking only what they have 
a right to ask, but often seeking unfair advantages at 
the expense of the public. 

Proposals coming from all of these sources focus 
on the legislature when it convenes. There are all 
sorts of measures coming from all sorts of people. 
Many of the proposals are unworkable, many have a 
bad object and would result badly, many are con¬ 
trary to the Constitution which we know is the 
supreme law. There are schemes for building large 
public works or giving rights to others to build. 
There are pdans to better conditions of the workers, 
to prevent child labor, to provide better education, 
to take care of the helpless, to punish offenders, to 
regulate railroads and public utilities, to protect 
health, to prevent fires and other losses, and to do 
many things to promote the public welfare besides 
the schemes to give to private individuals advantages, 
which many fairly or unfairly, seek. 

Such are the questions which confront our legis¬ 
lators when they meet. Fully one hundred thousand 
propositions are presented in the forty-eight states 
in a single year or an average of over two thousand 
to a state. 

Legislative Information.—The first need of the 
members is for information upon the many problems 


228 


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which confront them. Formerly they depended upon 
the chance knowledge of members and interested per¬ 
sons. In recent years the idea of maintaining a 
bureau of reference or information has been adopted. 
These bureaus, which are usually called legislative 
reference departments, study the laws of the state 
and of other states, gather information and opinions 
about the workings of laws and compile the informa¬ 
tion in a form which the legislator can use. In this 
way the experience of the whole country is brought 
to the aid of the members. The mistakes of other 
states as well as their successes help to guide the 
legislature in making good laws. Nearly every state 
now carries on some legislative reference work and 
many of the states are doing extensive work of this 
kind. 

Committees.—To handle the volume of business 
the houses of the legislature are divided into com¬ 
mittees usually appointed by the presiding officers or 
in some cases appointed by a committee chosen for 
the purpose. To the committee on health, go all 
matters relating to public health; to the committee 
on education, all matters relating to education; to the 
committees on labor, railroads, drainage, highways, 
the propositions relating to such subjects. This is 
the only way in which to handle so much business. 
Each committee has thus a chance to study deliber¬ 
ately the matters which come before it. 

Form and Preparation of Bills.—The propositions 
are presented in the form of bills which are usually 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


229 


typewritten. These are prepared by lawyers or other 
persons skilled in writing laws. A few states pro¬ 
vide bureaus of bill drafting or put such duties on 
the legislative reference departments, to which a 
member can bring his ideas, and have them prepared in 
a bill. The drafting of the bill is very important, for 
an omitted or changed word or a misplaced comma 
may change the meaning materially. Every word 
must be used with precision to make the meaning 
clear. An example will make this plain. It was once 
enacted in a certain state that wagons having broad 
tires should not be taxed. But what did the word 
‘‘broad tires’" mean. There was nothing to indicate 
and the law had no force. 

Introduction of the Bill.—After the bill is pre¬ 
pared, it is introduced by the member when his name 
or county is called on roll-call. It is read, usually, 
by the title only, and the presiding officer refers it 
to the proper committee. Perhaps scores of bills are 
introduced at the same time by other members and 
all referred to committees. The first work is thus 
shifted to the committees. 

Action by the Committee.—The committees which 
usually consist of a small number of members— 
though, in some states, there are very large commit¬ 
tees—take the bills referred to them under considera¬ 
tion and hear what is to be said by people for and 
against them. Often great public hearings are held 
to which crowds come with spokesmen to favor or 
oppose a bill. After hearing all the arguments and 


230 


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considering them, the committee sends the bill back 
to the house with its recommendations as to what 
the house should do with it. If the committee op¬ 
poses it, it recommends that the bill be indefinitely 
postponed. If the house accepts that report the bill 
is thereby killed. If the committee reports in favor 
of passage and the house accepts the report, the bill 
begins its journey on the floor of the house. 

Procedure in the Houses.—The bill comes up next 
on second reading when it may be debated and 
amended. If it gets past this stage, it is engrossed— 
that is, written out with all changes, which have been 
made during debate, inserted. In most states, that 
means writing out in longhand. The next time it 
appears it is ready for passage, although it may still 
be amended or again referred to a committee if 
enough of the members desire it. When the vote is 
taken the members vote ‘‘aye” or “no” and the vote 
is recorded. If the bill receives a majority of all the 
members of the house it is declared passed and is 
then sent to the second house where it goes through 
the same process. Should the second house pass the 
bill with changes, it must go back to the first house 
for approval of the changes. If the changes are ac¬ 
cepted, the bill is enrolled—prepared in final form 
either by printing or in some special form, engraving, 
or writing out in longhand—and is then ready to be 
presented to the governor. Should the first house 
disagree with the changes made by the other house, 
a conference committee of the two houses is ap- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


231 


pointed to fix up the differences and if they agree and 
the houses approve, the bill is enrolled. If the two 
houses can not agree the bill fails. 

The Governor’s Action.—In its enrolled form the 
bill is presented to the governor. If he approves 
the bill, it becomes a law. If he disapproves the 
bill, he vetoes it and sends it back to the house where 
it originated with his reasons. The houses may 
then try to pass it over his veto, and if they succeed 
the bill becomes a law. To pass a bill over the veto 
requires merely a majority vote in some states, while 
in others it requires two-thirds or three-fourths of 
the members. 

The Enrolled Law.—-The enrolled bill passed by 
the houses, when signed by the governor, is deposited 
in the office of the secretary of state and from it 
copies are printed. It is held always under close 
watch for it is the real law. Since the courts look to 
it as the real law, it is very important that it be abso¬ 
lutely correct. If any one by design or by careless¬ 
ness in making the copy sjiould change a word or a 
comma, the entire meaning might be changed and 
there would be no help, because the enrolled act as it 
stands is the law even though there may be mistakes 
in it. 

Lobbyists.—During the course of a bill through 
the houses it runs into many pitfalls. Forces line 
up for and against it if it is a matter of importance 
aft’ecting any interest either for good or ill. The 
state houses swarm with representatives of those who 


232 


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are for or against measures. Such men are called 
lobbyists. There are lobbyists who are working for 
the public welfare and those who are seeking private 
advantage. Arguments are pressed upon the mem¬ 
bers, personal appeals die made to them, and often 
vicious interests seeking advantages use money and 
other rewards .to get the members to vote their way. 
Politics, business, philanthropy and greed sometimes 
enter into the decision which the members must make. 

Manipulation of Legislative Machinery.—There 
are pitfalls, also, in the machinery provided. The 
presiding officer has great power. He may easily 
give the advantage or the disadvantage to a bill. He 
may refer it to an unfavorable or a favorable com¬ 
mittee whose decision goes a long way toward the 
fate of the bill. He may delay the bill to a favorable 
or an unfavorable time according to his desires. He 
may favor one side or the other in the parliamentary 
maneuvers. By a sudden trick when the friends of 
a bill are not prepared, a bad amendment may be 
made or the bill rnay ev^n be killed. The friends 
and enemies of a bill have to be on constant guard. 
They must know the rules of the house and the tricks 
of parliamentary law. 

The chairman of the committee to which a bill is 
referred is also in a position to help or hinder a 
bill. He may fail to call his committee together or 
to present the bill for their action. He may pigeon¬ 
hole it—that is, keep it in his desk. The house could, 
of course, order him to report it out, but that is not 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


233 


very often done. Under the most favorable circum-' 
stances, the chairman may cause delays which in a 
short session injure the chances of a bill. 

Legislation in Congress.—What has been said con¬ 
cerning the methods of passing laws in state legis¬ 
latures applies with slight changes to the enactment 
of laws by Congress. There are, of course, many 
differences in detail, but the general methods are the 
same. The Senate and House of Representatives are 
divided into comrriittees for the same purpose that 
the houses of the state legislature have their com¬ 
mittees. Bills come from the same kinds of sources 
and are prepared in the same form. Congress has 
thus far provided no facilities to help in the difficult 
task of drafting bills. 

Procedure in Congress.—Bills are introduced by 
members, referred to committees, have their hear¬ 
ings, are reported back favorably or unfavorably and 
go through the same process of reading, discussion, 
amendment and final action by vote. It takes a ma¬ 
jority of the mem.bers voting on a bill to pass it, 
instead of a majority of all the members of the body 
as in most of the states. A small number may pass 
a bill if that number be a majority of a quorum. 
Every bill passed must receive the approval of the 
president. If he vetoes a bill it may be passed by a 
two-thirds vote over his veto. 

Lobbyists in Congress.—Lobbyists also swarm 
around Congress. The interests at stake are often 
vast, involving perhaps the regulation of such great 


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corporations as the railroads, the Beef, Standard Oil, 
or Steel Trusts. Such measures as the reform of the 
banking system for the whole country, the tariff law 
affecting hundreds of big businesses, the anti-trust 
laws aimed at bad business, bring to Washington 
great numbers of men who represent big corpora¬ 
tions and who come to fight any laws adverse to 
these interests. 

Committees of Congress.—The committees of Con¬ 
gress are more deliberate in their ways than the 
committees of state legislatures. A majority of the 
bills are pigeonholed by the chairmen who fail to 
bring the matter up for action. Public opinion is not 
so forceful. A measure must have tremendous force 
behind it to arouse the whole nation. Only a few 
such measures cohie up in a session. The speaker 
exercises as great and in some cases greater power 
than the speaker in a state House of Representatives. 
A few members who have had long experience, know 
the game and dominate the body because of their 
knowledge of facts and methods. The actual busi¬ 
ness is carried on by a mere handful of men. 

Faults of Legislative Bodies May be Corrected by 
Intelligent Criticism.—There are many faults and 
weaknesses in the organization and methods of the 
city council or commission, Congress and the state 
legislatures. These can be' corrected only when 
people understand the work of legislative bodies and 
begin to give intelligent criticism. It is a very diffi¬ 
cult task to make laws under the most favorable con- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


235 


ditions. Just the task of wording them, so that they 
will not only be understood but so that no one can 
pretend to misunderstand them, is an exacting one. 

Added to that task, are the further tasks of mak¬ 
ing laws express the real will of the people, making 
them conform to the Constitution which is the 
supreme law, and fitting them into the scheme of 
things without causing unreasonable changes. 

The Initiative.—In making laws, representatives 
act for the whole people. They are expected to enact 
the will of the people into law. When they do not do 
so, the people may refuse to reelect them, but this 
does not make it certain that their successors will not 
do likewise. In order to force the adoption of laws 
desired by a majority of the people, the initiative has 
been devised. This is a means by which the people 
propose laws themselves and submit them to the 
voters for their adoption or .rejection. A petition is 
first presented setting forth the proposed law, signed 
by a number of people—usually about fifteen per cent, 
of the voters. At the next election, or at a special 
election, the question is put on the ballot and if a 
majority of the voters favor it, it becomes a law. The 
initiative is used in many of the states and numerous 
cities. 

The Referendum.—In many states, when the legis¬ 
lature or city council has passed a law which the 
people do not like, they may defeat it by the refer¬ 
endum. A petition is first filed demanding that the 
act be submitted to a vote of the people. At the elec- 


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tion it is submitted, the people vote upon it and unless 
a majority favor it, the law does not take effect. The 
operation of the initiative and referendum is effective 
when only a few important matters are presented to 
the voters. When numerous unimportant matters 
are being voted upon, there is considerable confusion. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

What is the relation between custom and law? 

Show how custom develops into law. 

Make a careful examination of the state constitution of 
your state and make a report on the provision relating to 
legislative procedure. 

Do you know of any condition which exists in your 
community which needs correction by law? 

Give some concrete examples of the need of exact lan¬ 
guage in laws. 

Why are bills written out in longhand? Is there any 
advantage in it? 

What reasons can you give in favor of the requirement 
that every member vote “aye’’ or “no” on a bill and have 
the vote recorded in the journal? 

What is the meaning of the term “lobbyist”? 

Name six different propositions which properly come be¬ 
fore the city council of your city; six which properly come 
before the state legislature; six which come before the 
Congress. 

Write to the legislative reference department of your 
state and inquire the number of bills introduced at the last 
session in each house and the number which became laws. 
Ask also for a list of the subjects upon which important 
laws were passed at the last session. 

Show how progress makes new laws necessary. 

Show how the broader education of the people causes new 
laws to be demanded. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


237 


Write to your congressman and ask for copies of a few 
bills as examples of the forms used in the Senate and 
House. Ask your state senator or representative or the 
legislative reference department for samples of bills intro¬ 
duced in the state legislature. 

What is the value of giving the governor and president 
the right to veto bills? 

Discuss the importance of the work of committees. 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the sessions of the committees of the city 
council, state legislature and Congress should be open to 
the public and that the proceedings and votes of members 
should be recorded. 

Resolved that it would be better to have only one house 
of the state legislature and Congress. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Bryce, American Commonwealth. 

Vol. 1, Chap. X “The Senate.’^ 

Chap. XII “The Senate, Its Working and Influence.” 
Chap. XIH “The House of Representatives.” 

Chap. XIV “The House at Work.” 

Chap. XV “The Committees of Congress.” 

Chap. XVIII “The Relation of the Two Houses.” 

Chap. XXXIX “Direct Legislation by the People.” 
Chap. XL “State Governments: The Legislature.” 
Chap. XLIV “The Working of State Governments.” 
Chap. LI “The Workings of the City Government.” 
McCall, Business of Congress. 

Reinsch, American Legislatures and Legislative Methods. 

Discusses both national and state legislatures. 

State Constitution, provisions relating to legislative pro¬ 
cedure. 


238 


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U. S. Constitution, provisions relating to proceduce of 
Congress. 

Rules of the U. S. Senate and House of Representatives. 
Rules of state Senate and House of Representatives. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 


Same as in preceding chaotei 


CHAPTER XX 


PUTTING LAWS INTO EFFECT—THE 
EXECUTIVE 

The making of laws is merely the beginning in tne 
process of government. The writing out and the en¬ 
acting of a law by a legislature or by Congress or by a 
city council is important only if it is carried into effect. 
To declare that a certain thing shall or shall not be 
done does not amount to much unless there are means 
provided to make sure that the thing is done or is 
not done. 

Law Enforcement. —As a part, therefore, of every 
law there must be provided, if it does not already 
exist, the machinery to put the law into operation. 
That machinery, we have seen, forms the executive 
department of the government. 

The Executive Department of the United States.— 
In the government of the United States the executive 
department consists of the president, the ten mem¬ 
bers of his cabinet and all the boards, bureaus, com¬ 
missions and officers working under them who do 
the work of the federal government. These offices 
and boards have been created from time to time as 
the need has arisen to carry into effect the various 
laws passed by Congress. When the country was 
239 


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small in the days of Washington, only a few officials 
were needed. There were only three members of the 
cabinet, secretary of state, secretary of the treasury 
and secretary of war and navy. The duties of each 
are indicated by the title. As the duties of each office 
grew, the need for additional ones increased. The 
secretary of the navy was first added (1789) and all 
matters relating to the navy were taken away from 
the War Department. Then the post-office became 
so important that in 1829 another cabinet office was 
created—that of the postmaster-general. Next the 
office of the secretary of the interior was created in 
1849 to look after the public lands and the relations 
with the Indians. The attorney-general became a 
member of the cabinet in 1870, although the office 
had existed outside the cabinet from the beginning. 
By 1889 the work of the government for agriculture 
became so important that the office of secretary of 
agriculture was created. A few years later, 1903,. 
the questions relating to commerce and labor became 
so important that a ninth member was added called 
the secretary of commerce and labor. In 1913 this 
office was divided and two secretaries were provided 
for—the secretary of commerce and the secretary 
of labor. Thus there are ten members under whom 
nearly all the work of the government is carried on. 

In addition to the cabinet, a few independent de¬ 
partments do important work. The Civil Service 
Commission is not directly under any cabinet officer 
but it is subject to the control of the president. Like- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


241 


wise, the Interstate Commerce Commission which 
regulates the railroads is not under any department, 
nor is the Trade Commission, created in 1914, or the 
Federal Reserve Board created in 1914. These are 
appointed by the president and subject to him directly. 

With these and a few minor exceptions all of the 
work of the government is under the ten members of 
the cabinet who in turn are directly responsible to 
the president. The president is thus in supreme 
control of the entire machinery of government. He 
is able to carry out the duty which the Constitution 
places upon him, ‘'to see that the laws are faithfully 
executed.” 

Whenever a law is passed by Congress, the duty 
of enforcing it is usually put upon some office already 
existing. Thus when an appropriation is made to 
erect a public building, the work is carried out under 
a bureau in the Department of the Treasury. A law 
relating to the postal service naturally is left for 
enforcement to the postmaster-general. A law re¬ 
lating to agriculture, labor, or commerce, is left to 
the agriculture, labor or commerce department as the 
case may be. 

As the business of government grows, or as new 
matters are taken up, new departments or offices are 
created. This will probably continue because the 
business of government is expanding, and more and 
more things are being done by the government. 

The Executive Department of the States.—The 
states likewise have a set of officers who enforce the 


242 


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laws and who do the state’s work and they, too, add 
new officers from time to time as new Vv^ork requires. 

The chief officer in the state is the governor who 
is directed by the state constitution to see that the 
laws of the state are faithfully executed; but he does 
not have the power to do so which is given to the 
president. We have seen that every officer in the 
United States government is subject to the president. 
The governor has such power over only a very few of 
the officials of the state government. Besides the gov¬ 
ernor, the states elect a number of officials who are 
nearly, if not entirely, independent of the governor. 

The secretary of state, treasurer, auditor or comp¬ 
troller, attorney-general, and in some states several 
other officers, are elected and are not subject to the 
governor. The legislature, in passing laws, puts 
many of the duties of enforcement upon these officials. 
So it happens that authority is divided and while the 
governor is charged with the duty of enforcing the 
laws, he has not the power like the president to do so. 

Many new boards, commissions and offices are be¬ 
ing created to do new work which the state under¬ 
takes. In the states the tendency is to create inde¬ 
pendent offices instead of making the new positions 
a part of an existing office. This has resulted in a 
great number of boards, commissions and offices sub¬ 
ject but slightly to the governor, who makes the ap¬ 
pointments but usually may not remove the official. 

Since power is so divided among many officials the 
governor is not in a position to see that the laws are 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


243 


faithfully executed. The president can be held 
directly responsible if a bad condition is allowed to 
exist in any department of the United States govern¬ 
ment because all the officers are subject to his orders 
and may be removed by him for disobedience, but 
the governor can not be held responsible for condi¬ 
tions in much of the state work because he has no 
control over most of the officials. 

The better way is to give power to some one cen¬ 
tral official like the governor and hold him respon¬ 
sible for the work of those appointed by him. That 
is the way big business affairs are conducted. Every 
big business has a general manager to whom all de¬ 
partments of the business are responsible. State gov¬ 
ernments ought to profit by the examples of business 
and, also, the experience of the United States gov¬ 
ernment. If the same system were applied to the 
states the people would elect only a governor and 
lieutenant-governor and all other officials would be 
appointed by the governor and be subject to his 
control. 

The Executive Department of Cities—The Federal 

Plan.—The cities have likewise a problem of provid¬ 
ing a system of officials and workers to do the work 
which the city has to do and to carry out the laws 
and ordinances which are enacted for the common 
benefit. There is much difference in the way cities 
organize their work. One form is similar to the plan 
of the United States government and is called, there¬ 
fore, the federal plan. Under this, the people elect 


244 


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a mayor and perhaps one or two other officers and 
then all other officials are appointed by the mayor 
and are subject to his control. 

The Commission Form.—During the last fifteen 
years the commission form of government for cities 
has become a favorite plan. Under this form, the 
people elect commissioners—usually three or five— 
and give them complete power both in making laws 
and enforcing them. They are the city council and 
the executive officials all in one. They appoint all 
the city officials and employees and have control over 
them. 

The Business-Manager Form.—A modification of 
this plan has recently come into favor under which 
the commission appoints a business manager who 
is given full charge over the whole executive force of 
the city. This is like a business corporation where 
the stockholders elect a board of directors and the 
directors elect a manager who conducts the business. 
In the city, the people are the stockholders, .the com¬ 
mission is the board of directors, who make general 
plans and vote the money, and the manager has 
direct charge of the city’s business. 

The work of the city is so largely a matter of busi¬ 
ness management that this plan of business organ¬ 
ization is admirable. The building of streets, sewers 
and public buildings, the cleaning of streets, building 
of playgrounds, parks and boulevards, the manage¬ 
ment of police and fire departments, water-works, gas 
and electric light plants are matters which require 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


245 


the highest grade of business management. The 
system which is most likely to be successful is one 
which centers responsibility in a manner similar to 
that of a business corporation. 

Execution of Laws by Counties and Townships.— 
The counties, townships and other districts into 
which the states are divided are also provided with 
a set of officials to do the work which the law assigns 
to them. The counties, townships and other dis¬ 
tricts are not independent districts but are subdi¬ 
visions of the state. These divisions are made for 
the sake of convenience in the accomplishment of 
local work. They do not make laws for themselves 
but they do the work which is needed under the laws 
which the state legislature lays down. Thus, the 
counties and townships have charge of the building 
of roads for local needs, but they act according to the 
detailed provisions of state laws in doing so and not 
according to their own pleasure. 

In some states, the county has important duties in 
connection with building roads and other works, re¬ 
cording deeds and other papers, enforcing law 
through the sheriff and prosecuting attorney, and 
caring for the poor. In other states, the county is 
not of much importance but the township is the prin¬ 
cipal agent of the state in local government. In still 
others, both the county and township are important.. 

In counties, the laws are executed through the 
boards of supervisors or boards of county commis¬ 
sioners and a number of officers, chief among whom 


246 


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are the sheriff, recorder, clerk, treasurer and 
auditor. Much of the county work is merely cler¬ 
ical, being principally the matter of keeping official 
records. 

The Problem of Execution of Laws is One of Fix¬ 
ing Responsibility.—The problem in carrying out the 
laws in nation, state, or local government is one of 
fixing responsibility upon some person to see that 
the work of others is properly performed. 

In the nation we find that from the lowest to the 
highest officials, responsibility is definitely fixed. 
The secretary of state is responsible for every per¬ 
son in the foreign service; the secretary of the trea¬ 
sury is in control of all the customs officials and 
revenue collectors; the attorney-general directs the 
work of every United States district attorney; the 
postmaster-general controls every postmaster; and 
the other cabinet officials control their departments 
similarly. At the top is the president with power to 
control the whole. The system is known as a cen¬ 
tralized form of government. 

In the states, on the other hand, the work is, as we 
have seen, scattered among many heads, each re¬ 
sponsible to no single person. The principal officers 
of the state government which correspond to the 
cabinet of the president are not responsible to the 
government. Again, much of the work of the state 
is performed through the counties and townships, yet 
in only a limited way are the county and township 
officials who do the work responsible to the state offi- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


247 


cials. The attorney-general of the state can not direct 
the work of the district or prosecuting attorneys as 
the United States attorney-general directs the work 
of the United States district attorney. The state 
highway departments may only partially direct the 
work of local road officials. In nearly every state the 
sheriff who is the principal officer of the county in en¬ 
forcing the state's laws is not responsible to any state 
official. This system is called a decentralized form 
of government. 

The cities show examples of both centralized and 
decentralized form. Some divide the work among 
many heads; others make the mayor responsible; 
while others put all power in the hands of a com¬ 
mission who in some cases make a business man¬ 
ager the responsible head. 

The Work of the States and Nation is Distinct.— 
The persons who execute the work of the United 
States government have no control whatever over 
any of the persons who do the work of the state and 
local governments. Not a single federal official—not 
even the president—has a right to dictate to the 
most unimportant official of the state, county, town¬ 
ship or city. 

The State Controls Cities, Counties, Townships, etc. 

—Since, however, the cities, counties and townships 
are agents of the state, in executing state laws one 
would expect that the executive official would be 
subject to some control by state officials. This is 
not the case, however, except in a few instances. The 


248 


OUR AMERICA 


legislatures have full control over the counties and 
townships, and in most states over the cities, but they 
have not seen fit to give very much control to the 
state officials. The legislature may lay down duties 
for local officers, but they give no one power to com¬ 
pel them to perform them. There are a few cases 
where the governor may remove local officials, 
and some power is given to state superintendents 
of public instruction over local schools, and to 
state highway officials over local road officials and 
to state health boards over local health officials. In 
some states, local officials are compelled to make cer¬ 
tain reports to state officials and in others the ac¬ 
counts of local officials are subject to examination by 
state officers. These checks help to make govern¬ 
ment honest, but they do not necessarily make re¬ 
sponsible government. 

System of State and National Aid.—The system of 
granting aid or subsidies has been invented to encour¬ 
age all our governments, national, state and local, to 
work together in harmony for common causes. In 
its most common form, that of state aid to schools, 
it is provided that aid shall be given on condition 
that a satisfactory school is maintained. It is merely 
a partnership between the state and local govern¬ 
ment by which the state puts in part of the money to 
maintain the school and asks in return that the local 
authorities see that the proper kind of school is main¬ 
tained. When the local authorities fail to live up to 
the agreement, the aid is withdrawn. The state 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


249 


also enters into partnership with the counties and 
townships in building roads. The agreement pro¬ 
vides that the state will pay part of the cost of build¬ 
ing the main roads if they are built in accordance 
with the specifications of the state. 

The national government enters into a partnership 
with the states in maintaining the state militia, 
known as the National Guard. The nation agrees to 
pay part of the expense and the state agrees to keep 
the Guard up to a certain standard of efficiency. 
When the state fails in its agreement the national aid 
is withdrawn. 

These are examples of what has become the most 
effective means of getting government work per¬ 
formed. 

The local governments are encouraged to under¬ 
take and to do work of common benefit to them¬ 
selves and the state; and the states are encouraged 
to undertake work of common benefit to themselves 
and the nation. Direct control is avoided but the 
results are more efficient. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Read the provision of the United States Constitution 
relating to the president and vice-president. What does 
the United States Constitution say about the cabinet? 

Read the provision of your state constitution relating to 
the executive department. Relating to cities. Relating to 
counties and townships. 

Vffiat is the value of making one man responsible for 


250 


OUR AMERICA 


the conduct of affairs as is done in the United States 
government ? 

Name your township offices. The county offices. The 
city offices. The state offices. 

Do state officers enforce United States laws? 

Do federal officers enforce state laws? 

Do county officers enforce state laws? 

Do township officers enforce state laws? 

Can the president direct the work of county, township 
or city officers ? 

What is meant by the “short ballot”? Discuss its merits. 

Give reasons why the system of giving state or national 
aid is effective in getting work done. 

Would it be a better system if the governor were given 
the right to compel any fetate, county, city or township 
official to do his duty. 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the cities should adopt the commission- 
manager form of government. 

Resolved that commission government for states would 
be preferable to the present form. 

Resolved that the state should elect a governor and 
lieutenant-governor and leave the appointment of all 
important officers to the governor. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Finley and Sanderson, American Executive and Execu¬ 
tive Methods. 

Howe, Modern City and Some of Its Problems. 

Chap. IX “Recent Charter Changes.” 

Ryan, Municipal Freedom. 

Bryce, American Commonzvealth. 

Chap. V “The President.” 

Chap. VI “Presidential Powers and Duties.” 

Chap. IX “The Cabinet.” 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


251 


Chap. XLI “The State Executive.” 

Chap. XLI “The Working of State Government.” 
Chap. XLVIII “Local Government.” 

Debaters’ Handbook, Commission Plmi of Government. 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Public Officials—National, State and Local 

(For specific information affecting their offices)* 
Short Ballot Organization. 

National Municipal League 
(Form of city government). 


CHAPTER XXI 


i 


THE SYSTEM OF COURTS 

Our next inquiry has to do with the provisions 
made for settling disputes which arise between men 
over their rights; deciding whether a man has broken 
the laws and should be punished; and whenever 
necessary, defining the meaning of laws so that 
people can better understand their application. For 
these purposes, courts are created, and everybody has 
the right to appeal to the court whenever he feels 
that he has been wronged. 

Many Kinds of Courts.—There are many courts 
because there are many questions to be settled. The 
close relations in which people work bring many dis¬ 
putes over property. We can see this from ordinary 
experience. The breaking of one of the hundreds 
of rules which have been established to protect people 
from dangers to life and property brings up a multi¬ 
tude of cases where persons have broken a rule and 
ought to be punished or have violated a right and 
should give compensation. The very size of the 
problem and the difficulty of making a rule or law 
cover all possible cases, bring a great amount of 
work to the courts because a person does not know 
252 


U. S. Courts State Courts 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


253 



The Process of Court Appeal 















23^ 


OUR AMERICA 


what the law means as applied to his particular case 
and the courts must decide. 

To meet the needs for courts there are established 
city courts, state courts and national courts. There 
is usually but one city court, though it may have 
several judges. The state courts, in most states, con¬ 
sist of the justices of the peace courts in townships; 
the magistrate’s, county, circuit or district court; and 
the higher court usually called the Supreme Court. 
In many states, the press of business has made nec¬ 
essary other courts for the purpose of handling certain 
kinds of business. The federal court consists of the 
district courts usually composed of one or more 
states; the circuit court of appeals of which there 
are nine, and the Supreme Court. These courts 
handle cases over the same territory. They overlap 
and yet each has its particular work and the whole 
goes on smoothly. 

The City Court.—The city court is for the pur¬ 
pose of punishing persons who break the laws of the 
city, and sometimes those who commit offenses called 
misdemeanors under the state laws. It does not 
handle cases of disputes over property. In the larger 
cities hundreds of cases are decided every day in the 
city court. They are mostly cases of people 
arrested for drunkenness, petty theft and disorderly 
conduct. In some cities, what is called the municipal 
court takes the place of the city court. Such courts 
usually have several judges. The work is divided so 
that each judge handles certain kinds of cases. He 



A Trial Court 





















Copyright by Clinedinst, Washington 
U. S. Supreme Court Chamber 














THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


255 


thus becomes familiar with the way of handling such 
cases and can despatch business more quickly. In 
Chicago, one judge handles all the cases of persons 
arrested for driving too fast. His court is known as 
the speeders’ court. 

The Justices of the Peace.—The lowest state court 
is that of the justice of the peace. Here the most 
petty cases can get a hearing. Sometimes disputes 
involving perhaps not more than one dollar are heard 
and settled. For the country district, the justice of 
the peace courts have the same class of criminal 
cases as the city courts in cities. In cities, they get 
part of the business which might go to the city courts 
and'thus overlap the city court to a certain extent. 
Cases of any great importance are not heard before 
the justices of the peace. Usually, they can not try 
cases when the amount involved is very large. The 
justice of the peace is elected, almost everywhere, by 
the voters of the township. The compensation, is 
small and lawyers seldom take the office. 

The County or Circuit Court.—The county, cir¬ 
cuit or district court is the next higher state court. 
Here the more important cases are begun and tried. 
To this court, also, persons may appeal from the 
justice court and the city court, if they do not think 
they have had a fair trial, or that the right result 
has not been reached. When the business becomes 
too heavy for the court, as in counties having 
large cities, it is often divided—one branch handling 
all cases of persons accused of crime and the other 


256 


OUR AMERICA 


handling civil cases. Several branches may be re¬ 
quired to do all the business and the court may have 
several judges. The county or circuit courts are 
presided over by judges who are usually elected by 
the people. 

The Juvenile Court.—The juvenile court is a court 
created to handle children’s cases. Here; the chil¬ 
dren who have been truants from school or who have 
committed petty crimes are brought. A separate 
court is provided because it is dangerous to the child 
to make him associate with older criminals in the jus¬ 
tice of the peace, city or county court. Child crimes 
are usually not vicious crimes and if the bad child can 
be talked to by a kindly judge and not made to feel 
too keenly his wickedness, he will be benefited by 
being brought before the court. To bring a child into 
the court where hardened criminals come, often 
makes him also a hardened criminal. Parents who 
neglect their children are brought before the juvenile 
court. The court is designed to protect children in 
every way possible. Through this court, when con¬ 
ducted by a good judge, many children have been 
reformed before they have become real criminals. 

Courts of Appeal.—The courts we have been dis¬ 
cussing thus far are known as trial courts because 
cases are actually tried in them. The evidence is 
presented to the judge or jury, witnesses are heard 
the lawyers argue the case and the decision is made. 

The Supreme Court or other court of appeals is 
not a place where trials take place. Men do not 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


257 


appear with evidence and witnesses. It is a place 
where persons appeal when they think they have not 
had a fair legal trial in the lower courts. The Su¬ 
preme Court , goes over the arguments and decides 
whether such appeal is justified. If the judges of this 
court decide that the lower court did not do justice be¬ 
cause of some error, they may reverse the decision 
of the court and order a new trial, or they may change 
the judgment of the lower court. In most cases, 
the decisions of the Supreme Court are final except 
in cases where a claim is set up that the United 
States. Supreme Court has a right to pass upon the 
question. The state Supreme Courts have the final 
word; but in criminal cases the governor, in nearly 
all states, may grant a pardon, or reduce the penalty. 
The judges of the Supreme Court are usually elected 
by the people, but in a few states are appointed by 
the governor. 

United States Courts.—We have already seen that 
the national government has nothing to do with most 
of the ordinary relations of men. It does not settle 
ordinary disputes over property and does not regulate 
the ordinary affairs of people. Its laws relate to 
matters which are wider in their interests than a 
single state. By reviewing the subjects upon which 
we have found that the federal government has 
authority, we also learn the subjects with which the 
federal courts deal. Besides these, should be men¬ 
tioned the fact that the federal courts deal with mat¬ 
ters of dispute between citizens of different states, 


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also between two states, and between a state and the 
citizens of another state. 

The United States District Court.—The lowest fed¬ 
eral court is the district court. There are at present 
one hundred and three district courts each comprising 
a territory consisting of a part of a state or a whole 
state or several states. This court is presided over 
by a district judge appointed by the president for life. 
In this court suits are begun and tried. 

The United States Circuit Court of Appeals.— 
Whenever any person is not satisfied with the results 
in the district court he may appeal to the circuit court 
of appeals which consists of three judges also ap¬ 
pointed by the president for life. This court may 
require a new trial in the district court or may change 
the judgment of the district court. 

The United States Supreme Court.—The United 
States Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. 
It consists of nine judges appointed by the president 
for life. To this court questions may be appealed 
from the circuit court of appeals or district court. 
Appeals, also, come to this court from the state Su¬ 
preme Courts in cases where it is claimed that the 
federal Constitution is violated or that it is a matter 
subject to federal law. 

Questions of the greatest importance only get to 
the United States Supreme Court, and that body is 
constantly deciding such questions. This court, like 
the higher courts in the state, does not try cases but 
hears the arguments based upon the case as pre- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


259 


sented in the lower court. Their decision may grant 
a new trial or may change the decision of the lower 
courts. When the Supreme Court has decided, there 
is nothing more to be done; the decision must be ac¬ 
cepted. The president may, however, pardon or 
commute the sentence of any person who has been 
convicted of a crime under the federal laws. 

Special United States Courts.—There are in the 
United States several special courts which deal with 
only one special class of cases. The most important 
of the special courts are the Court of Claims, and the 
Court of Customs Appeals. These courts are neces¬ 
sary because of the great number of cases in these 
fields which would take all of the time of the regular 
courts if the business went to them. The judges in 
each of these courts are appointed by the president 
for life. 

Court of Claims.—The Court of Claims hears and 
decides claims against the United States. Such 
claims are numerous because of the vast range of 
the United States’ business. Any person who is not 
satisfied with the decision of this court may appeal 
to the Supreme Court. 

Court of Customs Appeals.—The Court of Cus¬ 
toms Appeals deals with questions arising out of the 
importation of goods into the country and the pay¬ 
ment of duties. For purposes of levying a tariff, 
everything is classified and the customs house 
officials determine the class to which goods belong. 
The owner of the goods may not be satisfied with 


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the decision of the customs house officials and may 
appeal to the Court of Customs Appeals. 

In all of these special courts as in the special courts 
of the states, counties and cities, wherever they exist, 
the judges can become experts in the particular class 
of cases settled. They may thus do the work of their 
courts more speedily and accurately. 

The Jury.—In all courts, the jury is the body 
which makes the decision as to the facts of any case. 
A person charged with crime is entitled to have his 
case decided by a jury. Usually in all important 
lawsuits either party may demand a jury. 

The jury consists of twelve persons, but in minor 
cases a jury of six is sometimes used. The jurors 
are chosen by lot from a box and if neither side ob¬ 
jects to a man whose name is drawn, he sits as a 
juror. The decision must be unanimous in criminal 
cases, and usually in civil cases. In a few states, how¬ 
ever, a three-fourths or two-thirds vote may give a 
verdict in civil cases. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Review the provisions in the United States Constitution 
relating to courts. Review the state constitution’s provi¬ 
sion relating to courts. 

Name all the courts in your community from the justice 
of the peace up. Make inquiry of lawyers or others and 
write an accurate statement of facts about the existing 
courts. 

How are the judges selected? 

What cases are begun before the justice of the peace? 

To what court may the person who loses in the justice 
of the peace court appeal ? 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


261 


What is the final court of appeal in your state? (See 
your state constitution.) 

Where would the following cases be tried: (a) Suit 
for damages amounting to ten dollars? (b) Suit for 
payment for a debt amounting to five hundred dollars? 
(c) Suit against a person charged with drunkenness? (d) 
Suit against a person charged with burglary? (e) Suit by 
a citizen of New York against a citizen of Indiana amount¬ 
ing to one thousand dollars? (f) Suit of the state of 
Illinois against a citizen of Pennsylvania? 

What is the advantage of giving the right of appeal to 
higher courts? 

What advantages are there in having special courts such 
as probate court, juvenile court and criminal court? 

QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that no appeal to a higher court be allowed 
when the amount is less than twenty-five dollars. 

Resolved that judges of all courts should be appointed 
instead of elected. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Baldwin, American Judiciary. 

Bryce, American Commonwealth. 

Chap. XXII ‘‘The Federal Courts.” 

Chap. XXHI “The Courts and the Constitution.” 

Chap. XXIV “The Workings of the Courts.” 

Chap. XLH “The State Judiciary.” 

WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

Clerk of the United States Supreme Court and of the 
District and Circuit Court of Appeals in your district 
or to the judges. 

Clerk of the State Supreme Court or judges. 

Clerk of the District, County or Circuit Court. 

Make inquiries of local lawyers. 


CHAPTER XXII 


HOW THE COURTS WORK 

People are more interested in the way the courts 
work than in the form of the courts themselves. 
Everybody has need at some time in his life to use 
the courts for some purpose. Everybody needs to 
know something about how he may use them when 
the occasion arises. Everybody should know how 
the courts, as well as other departments, work, be¬ 
cause he can then criticize more intelligently when 
he thinks things are not done right. Probably if we 
knew the conditions under w^hich officials work, we 
would have better government because there would 
be intelligent criticism. 

The Purpose of Courts.—There are two main pur¬ 
poses of courts: 

To settle disputes between persons concerning 
personal or property rights. 

To determine whether a person has committed a 
crime and to fix his punishment. 

The first is called civil procedure and the second 
is called criminal procedure. 

Civil Procedure.—Civil procedure includes the set¬ 
tlement of disputes which arise in many ways. Some 
of the important occasions for disputes may be men¬ 
tioned. 


262 



THE ELEMENTS OF CIViCS 


263 


Money due to one person from another. TheXman 
owing the money may have refused to pay, claiming 
he did not owe it, or that it was not a just debt, or 
that the amount was not correct. 

Contracts or agreements made between two or 
more persons. Any party making an agreement or 
contract may be forced to carry it out or pay the 
damages caused by the failure to do so. 

Title to property. Determining who is the right¬ 
ful owner of property in dispute. 

Settling a person’s estate upon his death. This 
consists in paying all just claims and distributing the 
property according to the terms of a will if one is 
made or according to established law if a will is not 
made. 

Damages caused to another. This may arise by 
doing some harmful act to another or in failing to 
perform some duty, which results in damage. 

These are some of the chief causes, but there are 
many others. 

Beginning Suit.—To get any matter into court the 
person who claims any damage or right from another 
makes a complaint in writing to the court, and the 
court issues a summons to the party complained 
against to appear and answer the complaint by a cer¬ 
tain day. This process begins the suit. One person 
is said to sue another. The one who sues is called the 
plaintiff, the one sued is the defendant. 

In small matters, the suit is brought before the 
justice of the peace. Any person summoned must 


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appear or else he will forfeit his case. A date is 
fixed for the trial. In most cases either side may 
ask to have the matter decided by a jury instead of 
by the justice. Each side may compel any person 
who knows anything about the case to appear as a 
witness. This is done by the justice issuing a sub¬ 
poena ordering the witness to appear. 

The Trial.—The lawyer for the plaintiff opens the 
case stating what the plaintiff claims. The lawyer 
for the defendant follows with the statement of his 
client’s case. The witnesses for the plaintiff are 
called and testify what they know about the matter. 
The lawyers of both sides question the witnesses to 
bring out all the facts. The witnesses for the de¬ 
fendant are called and examined. Then the lawyers, 
for each side, sum up the case and make their argu¬ 
ment. The jury then decides, according to the weight 
of the evidence, which is right, and fixes the amount 
of damage or other claim. 

Appeal to Higher Court.—If either side is not 
satisfied, it may appeal to the higher court—the 
county court or as it is sometimes called, the circuit 
or district court. Here the trial is conducted in the 
same way, but there is much more formality about it 
and, of course, the judge being an able lawyer, is 
more likely to avoid errors in the trial than a justice 
of the peace who may not be well versed in the law. 

If the case is an important one amounting to more 
than a few dollars, it is not tried before a justice of 
the peace at all, but begins in the county or circuit 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


265 


court. The procedure to begin a suit in that court 
is the same as in a justice of the peace court, that is, 
a complaint is made, summons issued, witnesses sub¬ 
poenaed, and trial held. 

In either case, whether the suit is begun in the 
county court or appealed from the justice of the 
peace, one of the parties may not be satisfied with 
the decision. He may think that he has not had a 
fair trial or that some of the proceedings were not 
legal. He may appeal to the state Supreme Court or 
to some other higher court, if such exists, which is 
organized to hear appeals. This court does not try 
the case. It merely hears the argument of lawyers 
as to whether a fair trial has been had according to 
law in the county court. If this court finds that the 
trial has been fair and was conducted according to 
law, it affirms the case, but if it thinks there is 
doubt, it may order a new trial by the lower court, 
or it may reverse the decision without any further 
trial and change it as it thinks right. 

The Chance is Given for a Fair Trial.—It will be 
seen that plenty of chance is given to any person to 
get a fair hearing of his case. After his case has 
been decided by a jury, he is given the chance to 
have it reviewed by able judges. Most cases are not 
appealed because it is plain after they have been tried 
who is in the right. Sometimes, however, cases are 
appealed by men or corporations who have plenty of 
money, hoping that they can thus wear out their 
opponent if he happens to be poor. It costs much 


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money to carry a lawsuit through and then appeal to 
the higher courts or fight the appeal which the other 
side takes. Sometimes, justice is defeated in that 
way because a rich man may appeal a case, even 
when he is clearly in the wrong. 

Costs.—The costs are paid by the parties but are 
usually charged against the loser. This helps to pre¬ 
vent appeal because the loser with a bad case would 
only make his loss greater by piling up more expense 
by appealing. The poor man, however, fighting an 
appeal would have large personal expense and high 
lawyers’ fees and he is often driven to an agreement 
by which he settles for a smaller amount for fear of 
the expense of the appeal. 

Not all Cases Come to Trial.—Of course, not all 
cases come to trial. It often happens that the de¬ 
fendant knows he has no case and will settle before 
the trial. Often the plaintiff brings the suit to force 
from the defendant a settlement of a just debt. Some¬ 
times the matters in dispute are settled by compro¬ 
mise—each side giving up certain points—and the 
lawsuit is avoided. This is, of course, the better way. 

Enforcement of Decisions.—So far we have dis¬ 
cussed the trial and decision. When the judgment is 
rendered the next matter is to enforce it. Suppose 
the trial results in a decision that the defendant 
owes the plaintiff a sum of money, as damages or 
debt. Then, the court gives the plaintiff a judgment, 
and if the defendant has property of his own he can 
be forced to pay or have a certain amount of prop- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


267 


erty taken and sold to pay the debt. The possible 
harshness of this process on the poor has resulted 
in most states in exemption laws which permit a man 
to have a certain amount which can not be taken for 
debt. Household goods are usually exempt and also 
workmen’s tools. 

If the dispute has been over the possession of 
property, the court awards the property to the suc¬ 
cessful person. Then, if the other person refuses to 
give it up, he may be compelled to do so by the 
court. 

Power of the United States Courts.—It may happen 
that a person living in one state has cause to bring a 
lawsuit against a person living in another state. 
Where can he begin it? It is plain that one state can 
not control the citizens of another, so it would be use¬ 
less to issue a summons. The citizens of the other 
state would not obey it and could not be made to obey 
it except by the action of his own state. Even if the 
person should be willing to have the suit tried, the 
judgment could not be enforced by a state outside of 
its borders. The plaintiff might go into the state 
where the defendant lives, but in many cases that 
would put him at a disadvantage. 

A greater power than a state’s is needed and the 
United States courts take such matters under their 
control in such cases. They also are the courts to 
which suits begun by one state against another state 
or against a citizen of another state are brought. 
They also try all cases arising under the laws of the 


268 


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United States. Some of these cases are: Matters of 
dispute arising in territories or in the District of Col¬ 
umbia—these being under the sole control of the 
United States law; patents and copyrights granted to 
protect an inventor or writer, i. e., if any person 
makes an article which an inventor has patented or 
prints and sells copies of hooks which have been copy¬ 
righted, the inventor or author may sue for damages 
in the United States court; matters affecting foreign 
commerce and commerce between the states; matters 
affecting ambassadors and consuls and citizens of 
foreign countries; bankruptcy matters. 

Procedure of United States Courts.—The method 
of bringing a suit is the same as in the state courts. 
The case is begun in the district court. The plaintiff 
makes complaint in due form and a summons is 
issued by the district judge. The parties appear and 
the case is tried either with or without a jury. The 
losing party may appeal to the circuit court of ap¬ 
peals where arguments are heard. This court does 
not try the case again. It merely decides whether 
a fair legal trial has been had in the district court. 
It may reverse the decision, uphold it or order a new 
trial. The loser may still appeal to the Supreme 
Court which is the last resort. Its decision is final. 

The judgment of the United States courts are en¬ 
forced in a manner similar to that in state courts. 
Usually the cases are of greater importance and there 
are few failures to execute the judgments of these 
courts. The United States courts, having better paid 



THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


269 


judges appointed for life, are abler courts than the 
state courts. The business is conducted with more 
dignity and better facilities are provided for conduct¬ 
ing a case. The lawyers who practise in the United 
States courts are usually the ablest lawyers. It is a 
real distinction to argue a case before the Supreme 
Court of the United States. The judge tries a large 
part of the cases without a jury. An able judge 
may thereby get through a case more quickly. 

Criminal Procedure.—Any person who breaks a 
law prohibiting the doing of an act is subject to arrest 
and punishment. Society, in making its rules, pro¬ 
vides for their enforcement by punishing violators by 
a fine, imprisonment or loss of privileges. Violations 
of law are called crimes. When a violation takes 
place, the person may be arrested by a police officer, 
if the officer has evidence that the person has com¬ 
mitted the crime. A citizen may also arrest a person 
whom he knows to have committed a felony. Usually, 
the arrests made by the police are for crimes which 
they see committed or of which they have certain 
evidence. But arrests for the more serious crimes 
are usually made upon a warrant issued by a court 
after information has been given by a person or 
prosecuting officer charging a crime, or after a grand 
jury has presented an indictment charging a crime. 

Methods of Charging a Person With Crime.—The 
following examples will show how the machinery of 
prosecution is usually put into operation: 

A policeman observes a man breaking the speed 


270 


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laws and he arrests him on the spot without a war¬ 
rant. 

A person who has had property stolen may go be¬ 
fore the proper court and charge under oath that a 
certain person is guilty of the crime. The court may 
issue a warrant for the arrest of the person named 
which is then served by a police officer. 

The prosecuting officer, having knowledge of the 
commission of a crime, may swear out a warrant 
from the proper court and cause the arrest of the 
person by a police officer. 

The grand jury may, after an investigation, bring 
an indictment against a person in which case a war¬ 
rant is issued as in other cases of arrest. This, being 
the usual method of charging serious crimes, will be 
more fully described here. 

The Grand Jury.—The grand jury consists of a 
number of jurors who are sworn to investigate the 
evidence of crimes. The prosecuting officer directs 
their work. He lays before them all evidence which 
he may have. Witnesses are called and questioned. 
The work is done in secret. The grand jury hears 
only one side of the case merely to determine whether 
there is enough evidence of guilt to warrant charg¬ 
ing any person with the crime. If the jurors think 
there is evidence enough they bring an indictment 
which charges the person with the crime. 

The grand jury system has been attacked because 
it works in secret, hearing only one side, and often 
brings an unjust charge. While a charge is not proof 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


271 


of guilt, it creates suspicion, and a good man’s name is 
often sullied by an indictment. However, if the 
work is done conscientiously, there is little danger 
because good men will hesitate to bring a charge 
unless there is some foundation. 

Minor Offenses.—In cases of minor offenses the 
persons arrested are taken before the court at once. 
In the cities, these cases come before the city court; 
in the country before the justices of the peace or 
similar officers. A large number of the cases are dis¬ 
posed of without much formality. A police judge 
will often hear and dispose of hundreds of cases in a 
single day. Most of those brought before the court 
are guilty, but there may be some satisfactory expla¬ 
nation to be made by them. The judge imposes 
fines or imprisonment. Many persons are let off on 
promises to do better, as in cases of persons accused 
of drunkenness, or of disorderly conduct, or of youth 
accused of minor crimes. It is becoming the prac¬ 
tise in progressive courts to impose a sentence and 
then suspend it. The person is then let out on good 
behavior. If he does not keep his agreement, the 
sentence is carried out. 

Whenever a case of serious crime comes before 
the judge or justice of the peace, it is not usually 
decided, but the person is held for the grand jury and 
the evidence is presented then. Many persons 
charged with crime and sentenced by the police judge 
appeal to the higher court where they may be tried 
by a jury. 


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Rights of Persons ^"^ccused of Crime.—In the olden 
times persons were thrown into jail on mere pre¬ 
texts and harshly treated. Such things are impos¬ 
sible to-day in any enlightened state. When a person 
is charged with a crime he has certain rights guaran¬ 
teed by the Constitution. He may not be harshly 
treated. He is entitled to the services of a lawyer 
and if he can not afford it, the state furnishes one. 
In a few places, notably Los Angeles, California, 
there is an official known as the public defender 
whose duty it is to defend persons charged with 
crime thereby insuring that the person is given a fair 
chance. The prisoner is entitled to be freed if he 
can furnish bail bonds except in the most serious 
cases. He may compel persons to appear at his trial 
and testify. He is entitled to a speedy trial by a 
jury and, in all states, he is presumed in law to be 
innocent until he is proved guilty. Thus every pos¬ 
sible safeguard is thrown around the accused to in¬ 
sure justice. 

The Trial.—When a person has been charged with 
a crime in any of the ways set forth, he is brought 
before the court and the charge is read to him. He 
may plead guilty or not guilty. If the plea is guilty, 
the court imposes a sentence, but if a plea of not 
guilty is entered, the date of trial is fixed and upon 
that date the trial proceeds, unless postponed for 
cause. 

In the trial, the prosecuting attorney represents 
the people. He opens the case, setting forth the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


273 


main facts upon which the charge is founded and 
announces what he expects to prove. The witnesses 
for the prosecution are called and examined by the 
prosecutor and cross-examined by the attorney for 
the defense. When the evidence against the person 
is all in, the attorneys for the defense make a state¬ 
ment of their case and call their witnesses. These 
witnesses after examination by the defense are cross- 
examined by the prosecutor. When all the evidence 
is in, the attorneys sum up the evidence and make 
their pleas to the jury, the prosecutor having the 
last plea. The judge next gives his instructions to 
the jury pointing out the rules of law which apply to 
the case. The jury then retires and considers the 
case. In civil cases we have seen that the jury de¬ 
cides upon the weight of evidence. In criminal cases, 
however, it is not the weight of evidence upon which 
ihe jury decides but proof is required beyond all 
reasonable doubt. It is not a light matter to convict a 
person of a crime and our sense of justice demands 
that the proof of guilt be clear. This results, some¬ 
times, in letting guilty persons go free, but it is bet¬ 
ter that a few guilty persons should go free than that 
an innocent person should be found guilty and 
punished. 

The verdict of the jury must be unanimous. If 
there is not a unanimous vote one way or the other 
after a reasonable time the judge dismisses the jury 
and the case must be tried again. If the verdict is 
‘‘not guilty,” the prisoner is released. If the verdict 


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is ^‘guilty/’ the judge pronounces sentence, but an 
appeal may be taken to the higher courts as in civil 
cases. Any person who has been pronounced “not 
guilty” may not be tried again for the same offense, 
even though additional evidence against him might 
be discovered. 

Criminal Procedure in United States Courts.— 
Criminal procedure in the United States courts, 
which we have seen has only a limited field in the 
matter of crimes, is similar to that above described. 
Cases involving the violation of federal laws such 
as the postal laws, banking laws, interstate commerce 
laws, etc., come before the federal district court. 
There is a federal grand jury which is similar to the 
state grand jury. The United States district attorney 
is the prosecuting official. The trial is held in prac¬ 
tically the same fashion. An appeal may be taken to 
the circuit court of appeals and from there to the 
Supreme Court by any person found guilty. In some 
cases a suit which has been finally decided by the 
state courts may be appealed to the United States 
Supreme Court. There is a provision in the United 
States Constitution that no state shall take any per¬ 
son’s life, liberty or property without due process of 
law. Whenever any person claims that he has not 
had due process of law, he may appeal his case to the 
United States Supreme Court which may reverse any 
decision of the state courts found to violate the pro¬ 
vision requiring due process of law. There are, also, 
other limitations placed on the states by the United 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


275 


States Constitution and when they are violated, an 
appeal may be taken to the United States Supreme 
Court. 

Declaring Laws Unconstitutional.—The courts 
often find that a law which they are construing is 
in conflict with the constitution of the state or of the 
United States. In such cases the courts declare that 
the law has no force because it is in conflict with the 
constitution and therefore is unconstitutional. 

This power to declare laws unconstitutional is an 
important one because the court may defeat any act 
which the legislature has passed, and thus have a 
final hand in the making of laws. The decision of 
the highest court must often be made before we 
really know what the law is. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Make a list of as many different actual cases involving 
property rights as you can think of. 

Get copies of the forms used by the courts as follows: 
Summons to answer a complaint. Subpoena of witnesses. 
Warrant of arrest. 

What would happen if a person refused to obey a sum¬ 
mons; a subpoena? 

In a trial, whether civil or criminal, the parties and the 
court are very careful not to allow any testimony which 
does not have a bearing on the case. Why is this im¬ 
portant ? 

Why can not a state court try cases where parties live 
in different states? 

Find all the facts possible about the grand jury and 
its work. 


276 


OUR AMERIO 


Make a report upon what the Constitution of the United 
States says about courts, jury trial and the grand jury. 
Make a report upon the same subject in your state consti¬ 
tution. 

Give arguments for and against allowing the jury to 
decide in criminal cases by a three-fourths vote. Would 
the same arguments hold in the case of juries in civil cases? 

What good comes from providing for such appeals? 

Organize a mock trial. Consult with local attorneys and 
conduct the trial as nearly as possible like a real trial. 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the grand jury system should be abolished. 

Resolved that there should be a public defender as well 
as a public prosecutor. 

Resolved that courts of arbitration should be provided by 
the states and by the United States where cases should be 
decided without costs. 


WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
Same as preceding chapter. 


CHAPTER XXIII 


PUNISHING DISOBEDIENCE TO LAWS 

When laws are made, they become rules to g“uide 
the conduct of all people within their range. Like 
all rules, they must be enforced to be of value. But 
to enforce them means that something must be done 
to make people obey. When the law declares that a 
certain thing shall not be done and people disobey 
the command, there must be some punishment in¬ 
flicted, or else there would be continued violations. 
The ideal of all laws is to prevent crimes, and one 
of the means of prevention is to make certain that 
punishment will follow the violation of law. 

Enforcing Laws.—There are several methods of 
punishment. A person may be punished by fine, by 
loss of privileges, or by imprisonment. 

Fines.—Fines merely compel the payment of 
money. This is the usual penalty for the smaller 
offenses, but it is, also, the method in some important 
cases especially where corporations violate the law. 
Whenever persons are fined and can not pay the fine, 
they usually have to serve equivalent time in jail. 
Fines are not a just punishment because the man 
who has money can easily pay. A fine does not 
punish him but it severely punishes the poor man 
277 



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who can not pay or from whom payment would mean 
hardship. 

Loss of Privileges.—The principal loss of privileges 
to individuals is the taking away of the right to vote 
or hold office. This punishment usually goes with 
serious crimes in addition to fine and imprisonment. 
Loss of office is also inflicted upon officers who are 
impeached and found guilty. Corporations are often 
punished by having their right to do business taken 
away. 

Imprisonment.—Imprisonment is the most com¬ 
mon form of punishment. It is also a much more 
dreaded punishment than fines or loss of privileges. 
The fear of imprisonment is an effective way of 
preventing crime. And when imprisonment is coupled 
with methods which encourage and help a prisoner 
to reform, it is doubly effective and helpful. 

Capital Punishment.—Capital punishment used to 
be the penalty for many crimes. In England, at one 
time, as many as two hundred crimes were punish¬ 
able by death. Gradually the people became more 
humane, and now only two crimes are punishable by 
death in this country: namely, murder and treason. 
In some states, capital punishment is entirely abol¬ 
ished and imprisonment for life is substituted. The 
evident trend is in the direction of abandoning the 
death penalty. We shall, doubtless, soon look back 
on capital punishment as a relic of barbarism. 

Lockups.—The smallest form of a prison is the 
local lockup, where persons who are charged* with 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


279 


crime are kept temporarily until they can be removed 
to jails. 

Jails.—The counties and most large cities maintain 
jails where persons who are charged with crime are 
held unless they are let out on bail, and where petty 
offenders are confined for punishment. The evil of 
keeping men confined in idleness in jails has led to 
the establishment of workhouses and penal farms 
where prisoners who are sentenced for short time 
are sent and kept at work. 

Reformatories and Reform Schools.—Not long 
ago, all persons sentenced to prison were treated 
alike. The old hardened criminal and the young 
criminal were allowed to associate together. Little 
chance was given for those who wanted to reform 
and do better. Recently, we have begun to see that 
it is best to give prisoners an opportunity and 
encouragement to reform and especially young 
prisoners who may not be very bad, but, through bad 
associations or by mistakes, may have violated the 
law and got into prison. The most progressive 
states have therefore made a distinction between the 
young prisoners sentenced for lesser crimes, and the 
older criminals sentenced for vicious crimes. The 
young are therefore sent to reformatories and the old 
to prisons or penitentiaries. The young boys and 
girls are sent to reform schools, and thus they are 
given a special opportunity to do better. The best 
division is that all boys and girls up to seventeen be 
sent to reform schools, all men and women from 


280 


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seventeen to thirty be sent to the reformatories, 
and all confirmed criminals and those over thirty 
be sent to the prisons or penitentiary. Special insti¬ 
tutions are provided for women and men and for 
boys and girls in the best systems. 

In the reform schools and the reformatories, every 
influence that can help a prisoner to be a good citizen 
is employed. The hope is, always, that if a man gets 
started right again, he will continue to be a good man 
and may be let out of the reformatory at the end of 
his term without endangering the safety of others. 
One of the best means employed is to teach the pris¬ 
oners a means of livelihood. Trade schools are a fea¬ 
ture of all good reformatories. Here, men are given a 
chance to learn a trade whereby they may make a 
living when they get out of prison. Very few people 
who get into reformatories and prisons are skilled in 
any trade. Few who learn a trade in a reformatory 
go back to evil ways. Most people see that reforma¬ 
tion is the proper end of punishment, for many crimi¬ 
nals are thus helped back to a good life. 

Prisons and Penitentiaries.—The worst criminals 
are sent to prisons or penitentiaries. But they are no 
longer treated with the harshness of former days. 
Solitary confinement and dungeons are abandoned 
except for temporary punishments. Prisoners no 
longer live continuously in cells like caged animals. 
In almost all prisons they are now kept at work. 
They are under strict control and are confined sepa- 



THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


281 


rately in cells at night. They are given many oppor¬ 
tunities to read and study. They often form bands 
and orchestras, organize baseball teams, and do many 
other things which tend to help them. Prisons have 
become wholesome and sanitary and the care of 
prisoners has become humane. 

Penal Farms.—Penal farms are distinctly reforma¬ 
tory in character, the idea being that a real cure for 
a prisoner who has not become a hardened criminal 
is more likely to be accomplished by getting away as 
far as possible from the old-time prison routine and 
keeping the prisoners employed in outdoor farm 
labor. Such labor puts a person in fine condition 
physically, gives him a vigorous occupation, trains 
him in modern agricultural methods, and gives him 
an occupation which, after he leaves prison, may keep 
him from his old city associates and bad habits. 
While many state prisons, reformatories and reform 
schools have farms as a part of the prison plant and 
keep a small part of the prisoners at work on them, 
the so-called penal farms are usually separate institu¬ 
tions for prisoners serving short terms, or are substi¬ 
tutes in large cities for the old time workhouse. 

Employment of Prisoners.—One of the principles 
of modern prison science is that prisoners should be 
given occupations. Idleness is extremely bad for 
prisoners. Prisoners are, therefore, pressed into 
service to render actual help in making goods for the 
up-keep of the institution, and to raise farm produce 


282 


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and to provide various kinds of supplies and furni¬ 
ture for other institutions. 

Defective Prisoners.—A new idea is coming into 
practise in the treatment of prisoners. It is recog¬ 
nized that there are often physical or mental caus'es 
for crime. Persons convicted are, therefore, in many 
places being carefully examined to determine their 
condition. Often it is found that a prisoner is insane, 
epileptic, feeble-minded or otherwise defective and 
should be sent to a hospital instead of a prison. Per¬ 
sons who think about such matters are hoping that 
at an early date all persons accused or convicted of 
crime shall be examined to see whether they are 
mentally responsible. 

Indeterminate Sentence and Parole.—It is becom¬ 
ing more and more the custom to sentence offenders 
for an indefinite period, usually with a maximum and 
minimum period indicated, the time of release being 
dependent on good conduct. Criminals are removed 
from society because they are dangerous to society, 
but as soon as they have shown to the authorities that 
they are no longer dangerous, their confinement 
should end. Parole is the term applied to such re¬ 
lease. 

A paroled prisoner is allowed to go free on cer¬ 
tain conditions. If he keeps his promise as to his 
conduct and reports regularly to the officials, he is 
either paroled for a longer period or released abso¬ 
lutely. If he fails to keep his promises in any way, 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


283 


he is sent back to prison without a new trial and 
resumes his original sentence. 

Suspended Sentence.—The court sometimes sus¬ 
pends the sentence, that is, the prisoner is let go on 
probation and as soon as he shows he is not trying to 
reform, the court proceeds to carry out the sentence. 
If his reform seems permanent, he will in all proba¬ 
bility never serve his sentence. 

Probation.—A child when brought before the 
court for the first time and sometimes for later 
offenses is seldom sentenced to an institution, even if 
convicted of crime, but released on probation. He 
must report at certain intervals to a probation 
officer who is either a permanent court officer or 
some person appointed by the court to be a friend 
of the child. As long as the probation officer re¬ 
ceives satisfactory rejports, the child is free. An 
effort is made to help him by means of his school or 
home surroundings or through his employers. Adult 
probation is quite similar. First offenders are some¬ 
times not sentenced but are allowed to go free and 
required to report regularly to the court. 

Pardon—Reprieve and Commutation.—Prisoners 
may escape punishment or have it lessened or de¬ 
layed through official pardon, commutation of sen¬ 
tence or a reprieve. The president of the United 
States has the power to pardon federal prisoners. 
In the states, the power to grant pardons, commu¬ 
tations and reprieves, is a function of the governor. 


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The governor’s pardon is often subject, however, to 
the advice and sometimes the approval of a state 
pardon board or council. In a few instances, the 
pardon is granted by the pardon board of which the 
governor is a member. 

Aid to Prisoners on Leaving Prisons.—A prisoner, 
on leaving prison, often needs financial and friendly 
assistance in getting a new start in life. Such help 
is often given by private associations formed for the 
purpose; but it is recognized in some states as a 
function of the state to keep in touch with former 
prisoners and to aid them by advice, letters of recom¬ 
mendation, and loans of small sums when such assist¬ 
ance seems advisable. 

Local, State and Federal Prisons.—Most of the 
prisons are state and local institutions. Each state 
has a state prison. Many states have a reformatory 
for young men and a separate prison and a reforma-* 
tory for women. Boys’ and girls’ reform schools are 
provided in most of the states. Very few states 
have penal farms. 

The cities maintain jails and some have work- 
houses. The counties maintain jails and the towns 
and townships sometimes have local lockups. 

The federal government has three large prisons 
where those who violate United States laws are sent. 
By an arrangement with states and local authorities, 
the local jails and prisons are used by the federal 
government for prisoners sentenced by the federal 
court for short terms. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


285 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Why should punishment for crimes be certain? 

What are the relative merits of fines and imprisonment 
as means of punishment? 

Are all crimes similar in character? Is there any differ¬ 
ence in the character of the crime of stealing and that of 
exceeding the speed limit ? 

What is the advantage of sentencing a prisoner and then 
suspending the sentence during good behavior? 

Write all the reasons you can give for a juvenile court 
to handle all children’s cases. 

Discuss the value of the indeterminate sentence. Of the 
system of parole. 

How should prisoners be kept employed ? 

Give all the reasons you can in support of the proposition 
that the penal system should be based on the idea of 
reformation and not of vindictive justice. 

What provisions are made in your state to help discharged 
prisoners to get a start in life? 

Outline the entire prison system of your state and local 
community, giving the names and localities, of the prisons, 
workhouses and jails. 

What provisions, if any, are there in your state constitu¬ 
tion relating to punishment for crime? 

QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that capital punishment should be abolished in 
all of the states of the Union. 

Resolved that prisoners should be employed to build high¬ 
ways. 

Resolved that the penal farm is the most desirable form 
of prison. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Henderson, Penal and Reformatory Institutions. 

Debaters’ Handbook, Capital Punishment. 


286 


OUR AMERICA 


WHEE E TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

American Prison Association. 

National Conference of Charities and Correction. 
State Board of Charities or similar body. 


CHAPTER XXIV 


MILITARY POWER 

When our forefathers won independence and 
established this government, they kept in mind the 
dangers of military power which had been through¬ 
out history the principal menace to people’s liberty. 
They recognized the necessity for an army and navy 
for common protection, but they recognized, also, 
that the army should be subject to the people in such 
a way as to prevent the overthrow of the govern¬ 
ment by successful geherals. The Declaration of 
Independence voiced the sentiment of the people on 
this subject. One of the principal causes for separa¬ 
tion from England was declared to be that the king 
had ‘‘affected to render the military independent of 
and superior to the civil power,” and that he had 
“kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies 
without the consent of our legislature.” 

Constitution Limit* d Power of Military.—So 
great was the fear of standing armies that the con¬ 
stitution makers in 1787, when fixing the powers of 
Congress, provided that Congress should have power 
“to raise and support armies but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than 
two years.” 


287 


288 


OUR AMERICA 


Thus the need to raise and support armies was 
recognized, but fearing lest the army should become 
too powerful, it was provided that its supplies would 
have to be voted every two years. Any attempt of 
an army to dominate, as in some other countries, 
would be met by the failure of the money chest. The 
states put in the bill of rights in their constitutions 
the provision which generally stated that the military 
should always be kept strictly subordinate to the 
civil authorities. 

One of the first amendments to the United States 
Constitution, passed in 1791, declared that no soldiers 
should in time of peace be quartered in any person’s 
house without the consent of the owner. These pro¬ 
visions all tended to keep the military from any 
chance to dominate the citizens. But the 'people 
went still further in their attempt to safeguard 
themselves against military power. They gave 
authority to Congress ‘‘to provide for organizing, 
arming and disciplining the militia and for governing 
such part of them as may be employed in the service 
of the United States, reserving to the states respec¬ 
tively, the appointment of the officers and the author¬ 
ity of training the militia according to the discipline 
prescribed by Congress.” 

Here, then, is a complete check to prevent a stand¬ 
ing army from becoming a menace. Thus, no money 
is available for the standing army unless the repre¬ 
sentatives of the people in Congress see fit to vote it 
every two years, and the militia of the states, while 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


289 


under the regulation of the United States and sub¬ 
ject to call from the United States, is commanded hy¬ 
men appointed by the different states, the officers 
being subject to appointment by the governor or 
other civil authorities in the different states. 

Organization of the Army.—The army is organized 
at present in two parts—the regular army of the 
United States consisting at present (1920) of ten thou¬ 
sand seven hundred thirty-two officers and two hun¬ 
dred thirty thousand men, and the National Guard of 
the different states consisting of sixty-seven thousand 
live hundred fifty-two men, though one hundred eigh¬ 
ty-two thousand eight hundred thirty are authorized. 

The regular army is in constant service under com¬ 
mand of the United States army officers. All ex¬ 
penses in maintaining it are paid by the United 
States. The National Guard consists of the citizen 
soldiers. The members of the National Guard are 
subject to call at any time by the governor of the 
state or by the president of the United States. They 
are not, however, in constant service. Usually, they 
are engaged in their private business, but when the 
need comes to meet emergencies they must respond 
to the call of the governor or president. 

The National Guard of the states holds annual en¬ 
campments where military drill is carried on under 
direction of regular officers of the United States 
army. 

Cooperation of States and Nation.—The method 
of cooperation between states and nation in main- 


290 


OUR AMERICA 


taining the National Guard is used with the most 
effective results. The state pays part of the cost 
and if they maintain a satisfactory standard the na¬ 
tional government pays the rest. Frequently, it 
has happened that the states have been refused aid 
because they did not keep their guard up to a good 
standard of efficiency. It is a strong reason for the 
states to do their best in order to get national aid. 
By fixing standards, the national government is able 
to make a consistent army so that if the guard from 
several states should be called to work together they 
would be able to do so harmoniously. It is only in 
extreme cases that the national government calls out 
the National Guard of the state. The regular army 
is available and is usually sufficient for any work 
which the nation has to do. 

Commander-in-Chief.—^The president is com- 
mander-in-chief of the army and navy and of the 
National Guard when called into the service of the 
United States. The governor is commander-in-chief 
of the National Guard of the state. In both cases, 
the actual command is, of course, given to military 
men, although the final authority rests with the presi¬ 
dent and governor. 

Uses of Regular Army,—The uses of the regular 
army have not been extensive outside of the unsettled 
regions of the West. Only a small army is under 
arms at all times. As this is written, plans are under 
way for considerable enlargement and a contest is 
on between those who would prepare to meet emerg- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


291 


encies and those who believe that our geographical 
position protects us, without an extensive army—^ 
from any foreign foe. 

Uses of the National Guard.—^The uses of the 
National Guard are not extensive. It is an emerg¬ 
ency army. It is called by the governor to put down 
serious riots and to preserve order in calamities such 
as floods, strikes and fires. It is frequently used by 
the governor for police duties in preventing prize 
fights and gambling where local police officers fail to 
act. In a few states a special body of state con¬ 
stables are organized to attend to the preservation 
of order in any part of the state. 

Martial Law.—Whenever conditions become seri¬ 
ous and can not be handled by the regular authorities, 
whose duty is to enforce the law, the governor for 
his state and the president for the nation may de¬ 
clare that martial law, which is the rule of the army, 
is in effect over a given area. In such cases the 
regular civil officers become subject to the military 
and the ordinary processes of government are sus¬ 
pended. This extreme power is not often resorted 
to because the people would be jealous of its exer¬ 
cise. Presidents and governors being the head of 
the civil government would be very careful to avoid 
the use of this form of arbitrary government 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 
Why should the military be kept subject to the civil power? 


292 


OUR AMERICA 


What are the dangers from military power ? 

Make a compilation of all the provisions of the United 
States Constitution relating to the army and navy. 

Make a summary of all the provisions in your state con¬ 
stitution relating to the militia. 

What does the Declaration of Independence say on the 
subject of this chapter? 

How are the officers of the National Guard of your state 
appointed ? 

Are they appointed for political reasons or because they 
are proficient in military tactics ? 

What are the advantages of a uniform system of training 
the state militia in all of the states instead of leaving each 
state to train its militia as it chooses ? 

What are the possible uses to which the army of the 
United States and the National Guard of your state can 
be put? 

What would be the advantage of having military train¬ 
ing in the high schools? 

QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that the army of the United States should be 
increased to not less than two hundred thousand men and 
the National Guard to five hundred thousand men. 

Resolved that there should be compulsory military train¬ 
ing of all youth for at least two years from the time they 
are eighteen to twenty years of age. 

Resolved that vocational schools should be provided and 
that all members of the army should be compelled to learn 
a vocation. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

United States Constitution. 

Constitution of your state. 

Declaration of Independence. 

Report of the United States War Department. 

Report of the State Adjutant-General or similar official. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


293 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

United States War Department, Washington, D. C. 
State Adjutant-General’s Department, State Capitol. 
National Security League. 

American Peace Society. 


CHAPTER XXV 


RELATIONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 

Thus far in this book, we have been dealing with 
the ways and means of looking after our country's 
affairs. Sometimes, we think about the affairs of 
our country so much that we forget that there are 
other countries with whom we have any dealings. 
The people of all countries depend so much upon one 
another that a better understanding is needed among 
them. The world is made up of countries or nations. 
Each nation is independent of the others and runs 
its own affairs. Any interference by one nation with 
another results in disputes and often wars. There 
are, however, so many ways in which the people of 
one nation come into contact with those of another 
that some methods of working together have to be 
provided. 

Travel.—In the first place people travel in other 
countries. Some travel for pleasure and others for 
business. Some seek education and some adven¬ 
ture. Wherever a citizen of a country goes, it is the 
duty of his country to protect him against unjust 
interference. An American citizen in a foreign land 
is entitled to the protection of his country if he at¬ 
tends to his own business and does not violate the 
294 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


295 


laws of the country where he may be. Moreover he 
is entitled to the protection of his property in a for¬ 
eign country. He may not be unjustly imprisoned 
and his property can not be taken except by the 
honest course of law. We have often come to the 
verge of war with other nations on account of unfair 
treatment of our citizens. 

Trade.—Secondly, the people have need for trade 
with other countries. We have already seen that we 
draw our living from all parts of the world. Goods 
are shipped and payments are made from country to 
country. Ships of one nation reach the ports of 
many nations in the world of commerce. Money is 
loaned by the people of one nation to those of an¬ 
other. The dealings of people of different countries 
with one another are many and important. It is for 
the advantage of all, therefore, that the nations work 
well together. 

Ambassadors and Ministers.—Naturally, a great 
many questions and often grave disputes arise be¬ 
tween nations growing out of the relations of their 
citizens. Each nation must be in a position to know 
all of the facts in order to form its conclusions cor¬ 
rectly. It is everywhere the custom, therefore, for 
nations to have representatives residing in other coun¬ 
tries to represent them and to look after the interests 
of their citizens. These representatives are called 
ambassadors or ministers. They live at the capitals 
of the countries to which they are sent and represent 
their own countries in any matters which arise. One 


296 


OUR AMERICA 


of their principal duties is to cultivate the good will 
of the people and the rulers of the country to which 
they are sent. Many times, an ambassador has been 
able to prevent ill feeling between nations by his 
personal influence with the government offlcials of 
the country to which he was sent. 

Consuls.—A second set of representatives are 
called consuls. These officials are maintained in for¬ 
eign countries to look after the trade interests of our 
people. They also furnish information about mar¬ 
kets to American producers. In these two ways, our 
business men are helped in finding places to sell their 
products and in conducting their business affairs in 
foreign countries. By means of the Daily Consular 
and Trade Reports published by the Department of 
Commerce at Washington, information for business 
men about foreign markets is sent to all men who 
want it. Consuls also look after the welfare of 
American travelers who may need any assistance. 

Treaties and Arbitration.—Whenever two or more 
countries have close relations and many problems 
arise it is common for them to enter into agreements 
called treaties by which each country agrees to cer¬ 
tain things. Often these agreements are to arrange 
for the settlement of disputes, each country agreeing 
to submit disputed points to arbitration by impartial 
judges. Of course, there is no way to force a coun¬ 
try to keep an agreement, but honorable nations will 
not fail to keep their word. It has, many times, been 
considered a cause for war when a nation breaks its 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


297 


agreement. Nations, as well as individuals, ought 
to carry out their agreements honestly. 

The United States has entered into many treaties 
with other countries. The more friendly we are with 
a country, the more likely we are to enter into agree¬ 
ments for mutual advantage. By such treaties, we 
protect the interests of the people of other countries 
and in turn have the interests of our people protect¬ 
ed. It is to be hoped that at some time there will be 
an agreement among all nations to submit all dis¬ 
putes to arbitration. 

The Aim of This Country.—The aim of this coun¬ 
try has always been to keep out of any union with 
foreign countries. The interests of the great nations 
of Europe are their own and we have nothing to do 
with them except to protect the interests of our citi¬ 
zens. Washington, in his farewell address, caution¬ 
ed our people to avoid all connections which would 
lead us into trouble with foreign nations. His advice 
ought to be read to-day and heeded by all. It has 
been followed by this country for more than a cen¬ 
tury. We have succeeded during that time in keep¬ 
ing out of European troubles. 

The Monroe Doctrine.—The policy of this coun¬ 
try has been to leave the Old World alone and to 
protect the New World of America from interfer¬ 
ence from abroad. President Monroe stated our posi¬ 
tion in 1823 in what has since been known as the 
Monroe Doctrine. President Monroe declared that 
the United States would consider an attempt on the 


298 


OUR AMERICA 


part of any European nation to gain territory in 
America as an act unfriendly to the United States. 
Mo nation has since extended its territory in Amer¬ 
ica. Lately the Monroe Doctrine has been partly 
changed into the Pan American Doctrine by which 
the countries of North and South America consider 
themselves the common defenders of all America. 

International Law.—The rules which govern na¬ 
tions in their dealings with one another and which 
they are morally bound to obey are known as inter¬ 
national law. International law consists of customs 
and precedents which nations follow. It is unlike 
statute law since there is no legislature to enact it, 
no executive to enforce it and no court to construe 
and apply it. It is to be found in the writings of 
acknowledged experts, in treaties, in the instructions 
of governments to their representatives in other 
countries and in the elaborate code drawn up by the 
conference of nations which met at The Hague in 
1899 and 1907. These international rules are of three 
kinds and are known as the laws of war, the laws of 
peace, and the laws of neutrality. Thus the relations 
between two nations when at war are governed by the 
laws of war, and extend to such matters as the seiz¬ 
ure of goods intended for the uses of war and the 
treatment and exchange of prisoners. The relations 
existing between a neutral nation and a nation at 
war are governed by the laws of neutrality and re¬ 
late to such matters as the seizure of goods, the fur¬ 
nishing of war supplies, and the safety of persons 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


299 


not engaged in the war. The laws of peace govern 
nations in their ordinary relations with one another. 

Foreign Affairs a National Matter.—We have al¬ 
ready seen that the duty of attending to matters 
relating to foreign affairs belongs to the United 
States and not to the states. It is easy to see why 
this is necessary. What would happen if each one of 
the forty-eight states could make agreements with 
foreign countries is plain to every one. We would 
be in endless trouble. So the framers of the Con¬ 
stitution wisely left all such matters to the federal 
government. The president is given the power to 
make treaties with foreign countries, but all such 
treaties must be approved by a two-thirds vote of 
the United States Senate. The president is checked 
in this way from making unwise treaties. 

President Appoints Foreign Representatives.— 
The president appoints all ambassadors and minis¬ 
ters to foreign countries, but the Senate must ap¬ 
prove or confirm the appointment. This serves as 
another check on the president. Consuls and their 
assistants and the assistants of ambassadors and min¬ 
isters were formerly appointed by the president, but 
lately a system of appointment through a civil ser¬ 
vice examination and promotion for merit has been 
adopted. This has given encouragement to young 
men to prepare for this service as a life-work. 

Homes for Ambassadors.—The higher positions 
in the foreign service, while commanding good sal¬ 
aries, have usually been filled by wealthy men who 


300 


OUR AMERICA 


are able to meet the heavy expense of living in the 
necessary style. The ambassador or minister feels 
that he must rent expensive quarters in which to live 
and entertain a great deal so as to keep up with cus¬ 
tom. The salaries have not been sufficient to pay 
such expenses. Lately there has been a demand that 
this country furnish homes for the ambassadors or 
ministers so as to relieve them of the heavy expense 
of renting quarters and at the same time give the 
nation a better standing among foreign people. Many 
of the foreign countries own the homes of thfiir am¬ 
bassadors at Washington. 

Immigration. —Immigration is a problem which 
affects the relations of nations. People immigrate in 
large numbers from one country to another. When¬ 
ever there are advantages to be gained by immigrat¬ 
ing, thousands will go. As one country fills up with 
population, the crowded people seek space in new 
lands. 

America has always been a land of opportut-’^y for 
the crowded countries of Europe. Millions of people 
have come here seeking a home and opportunity. 
We have kept our doors open for foreign people and 
have only asked that they show that they are men¬ 
tally sound, not criminal and able to take care of 
themselves. 

Naturalization. —W^e naturally expect foreigners 
to learn the ways of America and finally to become 
citizens. We do not take them as citizens at once, 
but after their arrival they may declare their intentions 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


301 


to become citizens and after five years’ residence 
in this country, may become citizens with all the 
rights which they would have had if they had been 
born here. 

The United States government makes and en¬ 
forces the laws for this process which is called nat¬ 
uralization. Naturally, as soon as a foreigner be¬ 
comes a citizen, he can not claim any rights from his 
old home country. He is an American and under 
our protection. Owing to the problems which arise 
from having too many immigrants who would not be 
good citizens, laws have been made prohibiting im¬ 
migration of certain races and it has been proposed 
that every immigrant should be able to read and 
write before he is allowed to enter. 

QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Why is it best to have foreign affairs handled by the 
national government and not by the states? 

Show how trade, travel, etc., are likely to cause difficul¬ 
ties to arise between nations. 

What is the meaning of ‘‘international law”? What Is 
the advantage of having such law? How is it enforced? 

Why are ambassadors and ministers to foreign countries 
necessary ? 

What is the value of having consuls in foreign lands? 

Give all of the reasons which you can for arbitration of 
disputes between nations. Is it always possible to arbitrate ? 

Why do people immigrate? What are the dangers to 
this country in unrestricted immigration? 

Why is it best to have naturalization of foreigners under 
control of the national government instead of the states? 
What would be the effect of permitting each state to have 
its own naturalization laws? 


302 


OUR AMERICA 


May a person who is a citizen of the United States be¬ 
come a citizen of another country? 

Discuss the statement, “Once an Englishman, always an 
Englishman/’ 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that immigration should be restricted by an edu¬ 
cational test. 

Resolved that homes should be provided in all foreign 
capitals for the use of ambassadors and ministers. 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 

Haskins, The American Government. 

Chap. H. “The Department of State.” 

Chap. XXIX. “The Pan American Union.” 

Beard, American Government and Politics. 

Chap. XVI. “The Foreign Affairs.” 

Debaters’ Handbook, Immigration. 

Debaters’ Handbook, The Monroe Doctrine. 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER INFOR¬ 
MATION 

State University, Department of Political Science. 

U. S. Department of Commerce (Questions relating to 
consuls and foreign trade). 

Pan American Union (Questions relating to South and 
Central America). 

U. S. Department of State (Questions relating to am¬ 
bassadors, ministers, treaties, etc.). 


CHAPTER XXVI 


TERRITORIES 

When the federal government was organized in 
1789, the nation was composed of only thirteen 
states, and the territory over which it exercised au¬ 
thority extended no farther west than the Mississippi 
River. At the present time, the federal union consists 
of forty-eight states, and the territory over which it 
exercises authority extends westward to the Pacific 
Ocean. 

When the territory, located outside of the bound¬ 
aries of the original thirteen states, was first acquired 
it was wild and unhabited and of course had no 
organized form of government. It was usually re¬ 
ferred to as the public domain. The lands situated 
within the public domain were very fertile and at¬ 
tractive and they were soon populated by hardy emi¬ 
grants from the eastern seaboard who crossed the 
mountains in search of new homes. 

As soon as these frontier settlements were found¬ 
ed, it became necessary for Congress to establish 
some form of government by which the public af¬ 
fairs of the settlers might be regulated. Congress 
considered it unwise to create states out of this pub¬ 
lic domain and admit them to the Union at once. So 
303 


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OUR AMERICA 


they invented a temporary form of government, by 
which the inhabitants were governed until they were 
sufficiently numerous to constitute a separate state. 
In establishing such governments, Congress had to 
provide for officers who had power to make and 
enforce laws and it was also necessary to fix the 
boundaries of the region over which the authority 
of these officers extended. 

The first of the territories was organized in 1787; 
the last territories ceased to exist within the bounds 
of the United States in 1912 when New Mexico and 
Arizona were admitted to the Union. The territor¬ 
ial form of government still exists only in the de¬ 
pendencies’ and foreign possessions of the United 
States. 

At first, the territories had very little self-govern¬ 
ment. The territorial officers, who usually consisted 
of a governor, several judges, a secretary, a territorial 
attorney, a marshal, an auditor, a treasurer and a 
librarian, were appointed by a president, and 
all local officers were appointed by the gov¬ 
ernor. The legislature consisted of the governor 
and judges who made the laws, but it was necessary 
to submit these laws to Congress for approval. After 
the laws were enacted, the governor was required to 
enforce them and the judges tried all persons who 
violated the laws. Of course, as there were no of¬ 
ficers elected, the people had no right to vote. After 
this form of government had existed for a while and 
the territory had become more thickly settled. Con- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


305 


gress established a legislative assembly of two 
houses. The lower house was elected by the people 
and the upper house was chosen by the president. 
Gradually, Congress extended to the inhabitants of 
a territory the right to elect the members of the 
upper house and some of the more important local 
officers. As the population of a territory increased, 
Congress divided it into smaller territories and when 
one of these smaller territories had sufficient pop¬ 
ulation, Congress usually admitted the territory to 
the Union. 

This process of admitting a territory to the Union 
has not always been the same, but the plan generally 
followed was for the legislature of the territory to 
send a petition to Congress asking to be admitted 
to the Union on an equality with the other states. 
On receipt of this petition. Congress passed a law 
which is known as an enabling act, which empowered 
the people of the territory to elect delegates to a con¬ 
vention to frame a constitution. When the constitu¬ 
tion had been adopted by the territory, it was sub¬ 
mitted to Congress and if Congress approved it, the 
president then issued a proclamation by which the 
territory was formally admitted into the Union. The 
expenses of territorial governments were paid by 
Congress. The citizens of the territories took no 
part in presidential elections. Each territory was 
permitted to send a delegate to the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, who had the right to debate but not to 
vote. 



306 


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At the present time, the territories of the United 
States consist of Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, the 
Philippines and Porto Rico, which have legislative 
assemblies of their own; and the District of Colum¬ 
bia, the Canal Zone and a considerable number of 
small islands, including Guam and Tutuila, which 
are governed by federal officers and have no voice 
in their own government. 

Alaska.—The territorial government of Alaska is 
vested in a governor, appointed by the president, 
and a legislative assembly of two houses, elected by 
the people. The governor performs about the same 
duties as the governor of a state, but he is also the 
superintendent of public instruction and so has 
direct charge of the education of the people of the 
territory. The upper house of the legislative assem¬ 
bly consists of eight members and the lower house of 
sixteen members. All laws must be submitted to 
Congress for approval and all legislative expenses 
are paid by the United States government. Schools 
have been established for Indians and for white chil¬ 
dren, supported partly by the federal government 
and partly by funds raised by local taxation. Since 
1906, Alaska has been permitted to send a delegate 
to the House of Representatives at Washington, who 
may speak but not vote. 

Hawaii.—The Hawaiian Islands have been a fully 
organized territory since 1900. The principal execu¬ 
tive officers of the islands are the governor and sec¬ 
retary. There are also other territorial officers who 


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307 


















































































































































































































































































































308 


OUR AMERICA 


have charge of agriculture, the public lands, educa¬ 
tion and the forests. The territorial legislature con¬ 
sists of a Senate, composed of fifteen members, and 
a House of Representatives, composed of thirty mem¬ 
bers, all of whom are elected by the people. The 
judicial department consists of a federal court of two 
judges and various territorial courts. Of the terri¬ 
torial officers, the president appoints the governor, 
the secretary and the judges. The United States 
government controls the post-offices, customs, inter¬ 
nal revenue and the lighthouses; all other matters 
are under the supervision of the territorial govern¬ 
ment. The right to vote is limited to resident male 
citizens twenty-one years of age who can speak, read 
and write the English or Hawaiian language. The 
territory has a delegate in Congress who may debate 
and introduce bills but is not allowed to vote. 

Philippines.—The ^government of the Philippine 
Islands is vested in a commission of nine members, 
appointed by the president and a territorial legisla¬ 
ture. The commission consists of a governor-gen¬ 
eral and four executive secretaries, who are Ameri¬ 
cans, and four native Filipinos. Each of the four 
executive secretaries is at the head of a department 
and these departments have charge of the public 
health, labor, post-offices, public works, maintenance 
of order, public lands, education and finance. The 
legislature consists of the commission, which acts 
as the upper house, and an assembly of eighty-one 
members, elected by the people. The judicial system 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


309 


consists of a supreme court, twenty local courts, a 
court of land registration, an attorney-general and 
justices of the peace. For purposes of local govern¬ 
ment, the islands are divided into thirty-one regular 
provinces and seven non-Christian or special prov¬ 
inces. Order is maintained in the islands by a 
well disciplined body of native police, commanded by 
American officers. The school system is well de¬ 
veloped and consists of primary, intermediate and 
high schools, supervised by American teachers. Spe¬ 
cial attention is paid to primary and industrial educa¬ 
tion. The qualifications for voting are rather 
complicated, but in general each voter must take an 
oath of allegiance to the United States, he must be 
a property owner or a taxpayer, and must be able to 
read, write and speak English and Spanish. Two 
resident commissioners to the United States are 
elected by the legislature for terms of four years. 

Porto Rico.—The government of the island of 
Porto Rico is similar to that of the Philippines, and 
is vested in a governor and an executive council, 
appointed by the president for terms of four years, 
and a legislature of two houses. The executive 
council consists of a secretary, an attorney-general, 
a treasurer, an auditor, a commissioner of the in¬ 
terior and a commissioner of education and five 
other members who must be native Porto Ricans. 
The executive council constitutes the upper house 
of the territorial legislature and also acts as a com¬ 
mission with power to grant franchises, prescribe 



310 


OUR AMERICA 


rates of service charged by public utilities, adminis¬ 
ter election laws and approve the sale of bonds by 
cities. The lower house of the legislature is com¬ 
posed of thirty-five delegates elected by the people. 
Porto Rico has a delegate in Congress elected bien¬ 
nially by the qualified voters. 

District of Columbia.—^The District of Columbia 
is a rectangular piece of territory set apart as the 
seat of the government of the United States, having 
an area of sixty-four square miles, and containing the 
city of Washington. The district is governed by three 
commissioners, appointed by the president for terms 
of four years, two of whom are civilians and resi¬ 
dents of the District, and one an engineer of the 
regular army corps. Other officers, belonging to the 
engineering corps of the regular army, have charge 
of the parks and water supply. All laws governing 
the District are passed by Congress, but the com¬ 
missioners have wide discretion in the adoption of 
local ordinances and regulations. The inhabitants 
have no right to vote in the District but many main¬ 
tain a voting place in the states of which they are 
citizens. The District has no delegate in Congress. 
One-half of the expenses of the District are paid by 
the federal government and the other half is raised 
by local taxation. 

Canal Zone.—The Canal Zone consists of a belt of 
territory, ten miles in width, extending across the 
Isthmus of Panama. While the canal was being con¬ 
structed, the Zone was governed by the Isthmian. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


311 


Canal Commission. After the completion of the 
canal, the Commission was dismissed and the gov¬ 
ernment was entrusted to a governor and other sub¬ 
ordinate officers appointed by the president. The 
governor has general charge of the operation of the 
canal and the establishment of tolls. Justice is ad¬ 
ministered by one district judge. 

Minor Dependencies.—The minor dependencies 
of the United States consist of a considerable num¬ 
ber of small islands situated in the Carribean Sea 
and the Pacific Ocean. The most important of these 
are Guam, Tutuila and the Samoan Islands. All of 
these islands are controlled by the Navy Depart¬ 
ment and they are used chiefly as naval and coaling 
stations and cable depots. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Prepare a list of the various territorial acquisitions by 
the United States, giving the date of accession, area, the 
manner of acquiring and the states subsequently created out 
of each piece of territory. 

Was your state originally a colony or a territory? 

Describe briefly the colonial or territorial form of govern¬ 
ment in existence in your state before its admission to 
the Union; the date of admission; the population at the 
time of admission; the manner of adopting the first con¬ 
stitution ; and the provisions of the enabling act. 

Is it logical to extend full political rights to the alien 
peoples in our insular possessions when these rights were 
denied to our own people in the continental territories ? 

Were there any political reasons for the admission of 
your state to the Union ? 


312 


OUR AMERICA 


Does the United States own any land in your state at 
the present time? How much? For what purpose is it 
used? How much land has been ceded by the United 
States to your state and for what purposes ? 

What is the area and population of each of the present 
territories of the United States? 

Justify the practise of allowing territories to be repre¬ 
sented in nominating conventions when they are not per¬ 
mitted to vote for president. 

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 

Resolved that the Philippine Islands should be given their 
independence. 

WHERE TO FIND FURTHER INFORMATION 

Bryce, The American Commonwealth. 

(Ed. 1911), Chaps. XLVH and XCVI. 

Haskin, The American Government. 

Chaps. XVII and XIX. 

Beard, American Government and Politics, 

Chap. XXL 


CHAPTER XXVII 


WHERE THE MONEY COMES FROM 

Before the war it cost more than three billion dol¬ 
lars every year to do the things which the people have 
to do for their common benefit and for their protec¬ 
tion. One billion of this was spent by the federal gov¬ 
ernment, over four hundred million by the states, and 
the rest by the counties, townships, cities, towns and 
other districts which are organized to do part of the 
people’s business. Now expenses are much heavier. 

Cost of Government.—Where does this money 
come from? Each government, federal, state and 
local, must, of course, provide the money for the 
things which it does. The fact that this money is 
spent for public benefits makes it clear that the cost 
should be distributed in some way so that each will 
pay his fair share. 

Old and New Methods of Taxation.—^The govern¬ 
ments of earlier times seldom considered the justice 
of the amount which each should pay. They took 
all they could get from each. Some paid heavily be¬ 
cause it was easy to force it from them, while others 
whose property was concealed, escaped in part or 
whole. In those days, government was not accepted 
as a common benefit. Men were subject to kings 
313 



314 


OUR AMERICA 


and nobles and what they paid was to satisfy the 
desires or greed of their rulers. The money may 
have been partly spent for common benefits or it 
may have been wasted by the rulers or spent in petty 
wars. 

Although the whole plan of government has been 
changed to the democratic ideal of a government, 
doing what it does for common benefits and collect¬ 
ing money to be spent for the benefit of all, still we 
do not always carefully consider whether the amount 
we take from each in taxes is the just portion which 
he should pay. We are striving to reach that point 
where each person shall bear his just share of the 
burdens which the benefits of government bring. 

Sources of Government Revenue.—Governments 
derive the money which they spend from the follow¬ 
ing main sources: 

General taxation upon property. A uniform rate 
levied upon the assessed value of all property. 

Tariff duties levied upon any goods brought into 
the country. 

Excises or internal revenues—taxes upon liquor, 
tobacco, etc. 

License taxes levied against certain industries 
such as the liquor business. 

License fees upon the conduct of any regular busi¬ 
ness, such as a license to engage in the real estate 
business called business taxes. 

Taxes upon incomes at a percentage of the amount 
of the income. 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


315 


Fees for services performed by the government, 
such as recording papers. 

Compensation for ’work done for the people, such 
as the furnishing of postal service, Avater service, 
etc. 

Inheritance taxes—a percentage charged upon 
property transferred to heirs at death. 

Special taxes upon transactions, such as the tax 
upon notes, mortgages, deeds, telegraph and tele¬ 
phone messages. 

Special assessments against property benefited by 
an improvement, such as the paving of a street or 
the laying out of a park or boulevard. 

Poll taxes. 

Sale of bonds and other obligations. 

Revenue of the Federal Government.—The fed¬ 
eral government does not levy any direct taxes upon 
property. From the beginning, the federal govern¬ 
ment derived its revenue principally from tariff du¬ 
ties, excise taxes on the manufacture of whisky, 
beer and other liquors, tobacco, cigars and cigar¬ 
ettes. The postal service is now more than sup¬ 
porting itself from the amounts paid for services ren¬ 
dered. In late years, the federal government has 
added a tax upon incomes and upon the earnings of 
corporations. To meet emergencies, taxes have 
often been levied at different times upon notes, mort¬ 
gages, deeds, telephone and telegraph messages, etc. 

The Tariff.—The tariff duties upon goods import¬ 
ed from another country vary. In some cases, the 




316 


OUR AMERICA 


rate is so much per article or per dozen; in others 
it is a percentage of the value. When such a tax is 
levied, there are two opposing views—the protective 
tariff view and the tariff for revenue view. The 
former would put rates high and thus tend to keep 
goods out, thereby encouraging production at home, 
and the latter would make rates low and thus en¬ 
courage imports. Whatever the tax may be, it 
amounts to that much added to the cost of the arti¬ 
cle. The person who uses the article thus pays the 
tax. It would seem in a just system, therefore, that 
upon the common articles which everybody uses for 
living, the rates should be extremely low if not en¬ 
tirely eliminated and that those things which are 
counted luxuries should bear a heavier burden. To 
illustrate, if necessary articles of food are taxed, the 
poor man pays a tax equal to the rich man although 
he can not afford to pay so much. 

Internal Revenue.—The tax upon liquors and to¬ 
bacco is in the nature of a tax upon luxuries. It is 
levied upon the manufacture of liquors and tobacco. 
Every case of liquor and package of tobacco or cigars 
must bear the stamp which is purchased from the 
government. The tax is called the internal revenue 
tax. 

Income Tax.—The income tax is a new source of 
revenue for the federal government. It was first 
adopted as to corporations in 1909 and as to indi¬ 
viduals in 1913. Every corporation must file a 
schedule of its gross earnings and pay to the col- 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


317 


lector of internal revenue a per cent, of its earn¬ 
ing’s. Every single person who has an income of 
more than one thousand dollars or married person 
who has an income of two thousand dollars must pay 
a per cent, of the amount to the collector of internal 
revenue. There are certain exemptions. Salary from 
state and local governments and pensions are ex¬ 
empt. 

Postal Service.—The amount charged for postal 
service is not strictly a tax, but may be classed as 
such, for if the nation supplied this necessary service 
free, it would have to collect a tax to pay the cost. 
Instead, a charge is made just sufficient to pay the 
cost of the service. 

Amount Collected by the United States.—From 
these sources of revenue, the federal government de¬ 
rived the following income in the year 1915: 


From tariff duties_$209,786,672.00 

From personal income tax_ 41,046,162.00 

From corporation income tax_ 39,144,531.00 

From liquor and tobacco and other 

internal taxes_ 335,479,265.00 

From all other sources_ 72,454,508.00 

From post-office _ 287,248,165.00 


Indirect System.—The system of taxation used by 
the federal government, thus described, is an indi¬ 
rect system. Except in the case of the income tax, 








318 


OUR AMERICA 


there is no direct payment. The amount is merely 
added to the cost of the things consumed and the 
real taxpayer never realizes the exact amount of his 
contribution to the nation’s work. 

State Revenues—General Property Tax.—The 
states get the larger part of their income from a 
direct tax upon property. All property is given an 
assessed value by the assessors and that value multi¬ 
plied by the rate gives the amount. When the 
amount of money to be raised is fixed, that amount 
is divided by the total amount of property assessed 
to get the rate per thousand. It is a simple case of 
so much property, so much tax. It is based upon 
the proposition that the ownership of property is the 
test of ability to pay. Now, if all property were as¬ 
sessed at the same proportion of its value and if no 
property were concealed, this would be a fairly just 
method of taxation. But property is seldom assess¬ 
ed at a uniform value. Assessors do not know values; 
some of the assessors show favoritism; personal 
^operty, such as stocks, bonds, notes and mort- 
/ages, are concealed; property is moved out of the 
state at assessment time; and as a result the principal 
tax falls upon the property which is in sight and 
can not escape. Real estate, therefore, bears an un¬ 
just portion of the tax. Many states are working to 
solve this problem of fair taxation, but they have not 
been able to find a solution. 

Business Tax.—Another source of revenue which 
the states use is the tax upon business. Some of the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


319 


southern and western states receive from this source 
a large revenue, which consists of a license tax for 
the privilege of doing certain kinds of business. The 
state also derives large revenues from the liquor 
traffic in the form of licenses to permit the conduct 
of the business. A few of the states have tried the 
income tax. 

Inheritance Tax.—Practically all of the states levy 
a tax upon the right to receive property by will or 
bequest. The tax is direct. The rate is fixed and 
the amount is multiplied by the rate. The rate us¬ 
ually varies, being higher if the property goes to 
distant heirs and also varies with the amount of 
property, large amounts being taxed at a higher rate. 
In some states, the rate when the property descends 
to a wife, husband or child is low but rises to as high 
as fifteen per cent, when the estate is larger and goes 
to far distant relatives. 

Poll Tax.—A poll tax is levied in many states for 
the benefit of the state or local governments. It 
consists of a direct tax upon each man between the 
ages of twenty-one and fifty or sixty. The poll tax 
usually ranges from one dollar to three dollars. In 
several states a man must show his poll-tax receipt 
before he can vote. Usually the poll tax is not 
easily collected and the revenue from it is not large. 

Revenues of Counties and Townships.—The coun¬ 
ties and townships derive their revenue mostly from 
the general property tax. The rate for their purpose 
is determined and is levied upon the same property 


320 


OUR AMERICA 


as that assessed for the state tax. A few minor 
sources, such as dog taxes, furnish slight revenues. 

Revenues of Cities and Towns.—Cities and towns 
derive their revenues from many sources. The chief 
source is, however, the general property tax, the 
amount for city purposes being levied against the 
same property as that assessed for state purposes. 
A second source of revenue is from licenses of sa¬ 
loons and from business taxes. Trades and busi¬ 
ness are required to be licensed in many cities. A 
vehicle tax is quite generally imposed upon all 
wheeled vehicles run upon the streets. 

Many cities derive considerable revenu ^ from ser¬ 
vices performed for the people. Most ol our cities 
own their, own waterworks and the profits arising 
from their operation go into the city treasury. Many 
cities own electric light plants and profits go into 
the revenues of the cities; many cities own gas plants 
also, and a few own street railways which furnish a 
profit. 

Special Assessments for Streets, Sewers, etc.— 
Some of the most important work of the city is paid 
for by special assessments, that is, by assessments 
upon the property benefited. Pavements, sewers and 
sidewalks are of this class. A portion or all of the 
cost of parks and boulevards is often levied against 
benefited property. The assessments for pavements, 
sewers and sidewalks are based upon the frontage of 
the lot. Each foot is taxed its proportion of the cost 
of pavement and sidewalks, without regard to the 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


321 


value of the property. It is usually left to the will 
of the property owners on a street whether the pave¬ 
ments or sidewalks shall be put in, but the cities 
often order the work in spite of the owners when 
the general public convenience is promoted. 

The methods of assessment for improvements vary 
in the cities. Some pay the cosjt of street intersec¬ 
tions out of the city treasury while others apportion 
it against the property owners running back a cer¬ 
tain distance on both streets. Some cities levy the 
cost on all of the land for a considerable distance 
back, but put the larger burden upon the land which 
fronts the street. Many cities pay the entire cost of 
paving out of the city treasury. 

Formerly, such special taxes were levied and col¬ 
lected all at once. It was a severe hardship upon 
many to pay the heavy cost of street paving all at 
once, and provision is made quite generally now for 
the distribution of the cost over five or ten years, 
the tax being paid in regular annual installments 
with interest. 

There has always been much argument over the 
question whether a property owner should be com¬ 
pelled to pay entirely for paving the street in front 
of his property for the use of the whole city. In 
general, however, it is accepted that such improve¬ 
ments increase the value of such property in amount 
equal to, or greater than, the amount of the tax. The 
theory of benefits to property, therefore, justifies 
the tax. 



322 


OUR AMERICA 


Drainage, irrigation and other districts derive their 
revenues almost entirely from assessments for bene¬ 
fits derived. In some places highways are paid for 
by special assessments. 

School Revenue.—School districts, when they arc 
separate from the township, town, or city, get their 
revenues from direct taxes levied upon the property 
assessed for other purposes, and from aid given by 
the state. Nearly every state has a permanent fund 
arising out of grants of land made by the federal 
government and from other sources, the income from 
which is distributed to the schools on the basis of 
attendance, enrollment, number of teachers, or 
money expended. These funds are sometimes given 
on condition that certain requirements are met by 
the schools and this makes better schools. In sev¬ 
eral states, fhe state pays a part of the cost of voca¬ 
tional education, provided the schools carry on the 
work properly. 

Bonds.—The most important source of revenue 
for the purpose of constructing public works is the 
issuing of bonds which are debts to be paid at stated 
intervals in the future. All governments, national, 
state and local, employ this method. In 1919 there' 
were more than $29^355,787,355 in federal bonds 
alone. 

The purpose of issuing bonds is to distribute the 
expense of public works so that future generations 
which, are to share the benefits shall likewise share 
the cost. It would be unfair to this generation to 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


323 


pay entirely for works which will be used by the next 
generation. Government bonds usually bear a low 
rate of interest because they are considered very 
safe investments and people seek them even at a 
low rate of interest. They are usually made pay¬ 
able at different times so as to distribute the burden, 
and the interest is paid annually or semi-annually. 

Good financiers would provide that bonds should 
be issued only for works which are permanent in 
character. It would be unjust to burden our chil¬ 
dren with bonds issued for purposes from which we 
alone profited. Bonds should not run for a period 
so long that the works, which they were issued to 
build, shall be worn out before the bonds are paid. 
Some states have issued bonds for highways pay¬ 
able in fifty years although the roads constructed 
from the proceeds would be worn out many years 
before the bonds are paid. 

It is good business practise to issue bonds for 
permanent purposes if sound financial principles are 
observed. Much of the great progress already made 
in many lines, such as the building of roads and 
schoolhouses, has been accomplished by means of 
bond issues. The government should use the pru¬ 
dence in going into debt which individuals exercise in 
handling their own affairs. 

Provisions to Pay Bonds.—When bonds are issued 
some provision should be made to pay them when 
due just as an individual makes provision for pay¬ 
ing his debt when due. e- ^ 




324 


OUR AMERICA 


Two methods are followed: 

1. Sinking Funds. 

2. Serial Bonds. 

Sinking funds are provided to meet a debt. Every 
year a certain amount is added to the fund, usually 
from a tax, and this fund is kept at interest until a 
debt is due. The amount of the sinking fund will be 
enough to pay the debt as it falls due. 

Serial bonds are preferable to the sinking fund. 
These bonds are madfe in series so that a portion 
comes due each year-. A special tax can then be 
levied each year and the proceeds used to meet each 
bond as it comes due. 

Planning Expenditures—The Budget.—The finan¬ 
cial affairs of the governments, national, state and 
local, should Be conducted with intelligence and care¬ 
ful planning. We ought to know where the money 
comes from and where it goes. The statements con¬ 
cerning the public finances should be made so clear 
that the people may readily understand them. 

At the beginning of each year the budget for the 
year should be prepared showing just what it is pro¬ 
posed to spend money for and just where the money 
is coming from. Expenditures should be kept with¬ 
in the income and if more money is needed, it should 
be provided for before the money is expend^ed. More¬ 
over, the people should be informed as to all details 
of plans for raising revenue and spending it. 

Proposed Reforms in Taxation.—Many proposals 
are made to reform the methods of taxation, each 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


325 


seeking greater fairness. Among the proposals which 
are made are: the single tax; progressive taxation 
and classification of property with a different rate 
upon each class. 

The Single Tax.—The single tax, as its name indi¬ 
cates, is a tax upon one thing, only—land. No tax 
is levied under this plan upon buildings and other 
improvements. The theory is that by taxing land it 
forces people to use their land, and the increased 
business makes the land in greater demand and 
thereby increase its value to offset the tax. Under 
such a tax, there is no chance for land speculators 
who hold their land for an increase in value. 

The Progressive Tax.—The progressive tax is a 
graded tax upon property. The rate increases as 
the amount of a man’s property increases. Thus, a 
man who has one thousand dollars may pay one per 
cent., while a person having a million dollars pays a 
higher rate. The theory of this kind of taxation is 
that persons who have large amounts of property 
are able to pay more taxes in proportion to their 
property. 

Classification of Property.—Classification of prop¬ 
erty for taxation is a plan to assess different kinds 
of property at different rates. This makes it possi¬ 
ble to fix a rate upon each kind of property accord¬ 
ing to its ability to stand the tax. 

Assessing and Collecting Taxes.—^The work of as¬ 
sessing and collecting the taxes is done in the nation 
by custom house officers and internal revenue col- 


326 


OUR AMERICA 


lectors. The former have charge of the custom 
houses and collect the tariff upon goods imported. 
The latter are scattered throughout the country and 
collect the income taxes and the tax upon liquors, 
tobaccos, etc. All are under the direction of the 
secretary of the treasury. 

State and local taxes are collected by local collec¬ 
tors or treasurers after the property has been as¬ 
sessed by the local assessors. Many of the states have 
county assessors or boards who try to make assess¬ 
ments in different townships more uniform. A state 
tax commission or commissioner is provided in many 
states whose duty it is to help enforce the tax laws 
to try to make assessments uniform throughout the 
State and to bring about greater justice in taxation. 


QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Why should each person pay his share of the taxes? 

What should be the test of the amount which each person 
should pay in taxes ? 

Should the tax for building roads be paid, principally, by 
those who use the roads ? 

Should the tax for education be paid, principally, by those 
who have children to send to school ? 

How is property in your community assessed for taxa¬ 
tion? Who does the work? How is the official who does 
the work chosen? How can more competent assessors 
be selected? 

What would be the effect of assessing property in differ¬ 
ent townships or counties at different percentages of value? 

Find the approximate cost of paving streets with 
different kinds of paving materials and fix the amount 
which should be charged against each piece of property 


THE ELEMENTS OF CIVICS 


327 


in a given block. (This will make it necessary to get an 
exact plat of the block and to apply the exact method in 
use in your city.) 

Suppose that the cost of macadamizing a highway were 
assessed against the abutting property. What would be 
the amount assessed against the farmers in your school 
district if the roads were all macadamized and were to cost 
eight thousand dollars a mile? 

Would it be desirable to lay a progressive tax upon 
property, the rate to increase according as the amount of 
property increases? 

Get the facts about assessments of as many pieces of 
property as you can and compare the amount of assess¬ 
ment with the values. 

Should bonds be issued to pay any part of the yearly 
expense of government? 

What is the purpose of a budget? Why should there be 
full public knowledge of the proposed budget? Does your 
township, county, town or city have any plan to explain the 
budget to the people? 

What are the chief items of expenditure in your local 
governments? Are these due in part to waste or extrava¬ 
gance? How can greater economy be secured? 

What is the date when taxes are collected in your com¬ 
munity? Are school taxes collected at the same time? 

When is property assessed for taxation ? 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE 

Resolved that property owners should not pay taxes at 
exactly the same rate on all kinds of property. 

Resolved that the income tax is preferable to the general 
property tax. 

Resolved that inheritance taxes should be levied to such 
an extent as to limit the amount which any person can 
inherit. 

Resolved that tariff duties should be levied at a low rate 
instead of a protective rate. 



328 OUR AMERICA 

WHERE TO LOOK FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 


Plehn, Government Finance in the United States, 
Fillebrown, A, B, C of Taxation. 

(Single Tax Theory of Socialization.) 

Bryce, American Commonwealth, 

Chap. XLIII "‘State Finances.” 

Chap. XVII “Congressional Finance.” 

Howe, The Modern City and Its Problems. 
Chap. XXIII “New Sources of City Revenue.” 
Chap. XXII “The City Budget.” 

Debaters^ Handbook, The Single Tax. 

Debaters’ Handbook. The Income Tax. 


WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 

State Tax Commissioner or Commissioners (if your state 
has such officials). 

Local tax officials. 

National Tax Association. 

United States Census Bureau. (Publishes Statistics on 
Wealth, Debt and Taxation.) 

Single Tax Association. 


THE END 


APPENDIX 









OUTLINE OF THE POWERS AND DUTIES OF 
FEDERAL OFFICIALS 


The President .—By far the most important offcer of the 
federal government is the president. The president must 
be at least thirty-five years of age and a native-born citizen 
of the United States; he is elected for a term of four years, 
beginning March fourth, following his election, and is 
eligible to reelection. The president is elected indirectly. 
Voters do not vote for candidates for president, but for 
presidential electors, who are pledged in advance to vote for 
a certain candidate. The process by which the president 
is inducted into office is known as the inauguration. At 
that time the president takes the oath of office, which is 
usually administered by the chief justice of the Supreme 
Court, and delivers an inaugural address, in which the aims 
of the incoming'administration are set forth. The powers 
exercised by the president are very extensive and vary in 
accordance with the events of his administration and the 
character of the president. Probably no ruler who ever 
lived exercised such extensive authority as did President 
Lincoln during the Civil War. 

The most important functions of the president are to 
conduct foreign affairs, to appoint ambassadors and consuls 
to foreign countries and to receive foreign ambassadors; to 
command the army and navy of the United States; to issue 
official proclamations; to submit messages to Congress; to 
recommend political policies and legislative measures; to 
supervise the preparation of administrative measures, un¬ 
der the direction of departmental heads; to summon special 
sessions of Congress; to veto or approve bills passed by 
Congress; to exercise the pardoning power; and to nominate 
and commission officers. There are over ten thousand posi- 

331 


332 


APPENDIX 


tions in the federal service which are filled by the president. 
In addition to these strictly official duties, the influence o£ 
the president as chief of his party as the only representa¬ 
tive of the whole country, is of the greatest practical con¬ 
sequence. 

Vice-President .—The qualifications for vice-president are 
the same as those for president, and he is chosen for the 
same term and in the same manner. In case of the death or 
disability of the president, the vice-president succeeds to 
that office. The only duty of the vice-president is to pre¬ 
side over the Senate, and in the case of a tie to cast the 
deciding vote. An aggressive and popular man as vice- 
president usually exercises considerable personal influence 
in spite of his lack of power. 

The Cabinet .—The cabinet is composed of the secretaries 
in charge of the executive departments of the general gov¬ 
ernment. At the present time there are ten members. The 
departments of State, Treasury and War and the office of 
attorney-general were in existence in 1789, as was also the 
office of postmaster-general, but the latter was not raised 
to the rank of a cabinet portfolio until 1829, and the attor¬ 
ney-general was not recognized as the head of the Depart¬ 
ment of Justice until 1878. The Navy Department was 
created in 1798; the Department of Interior in 1849; 
the Department of Agriculture in 1889; the Depart¬ 
ment of Commerce in 1903; and the Department of Labor 
in 1913. The cabinet is not mentioned in the Constitution. 
All cabinet officers are appointed by the president with the 
advice and consent of the Senate, but the president may 
remove any cabinet officer at his discretion. Cabinet offi¬ 
cers are usually, but not necessarily, adherents of the presi¬ 
dent’s party. The duties of a cabinet officer are threefold: 
to manage the affairs of his own department; to submit 
written opinions to the president concerning the work of 
his department, including a review of things done and rec¬ 
ommendations for the future; and to sit in consultation 
with his colleagues and the president to determine and out¬ 
line the political course of the administration. When the 


APPENDIX 


333 


president is in Washington, the cabinet meets regularly 
on Tuesday and Friday of each week. 

Secretary of State .—The secretary of state is the most 
important officer of the cabinet. The duties of the secre¬ 
tary of state are threefold: he has charge of the great 
seal which he affixes to all presidential commissions and 
other executive instruments; he is the custodian of the offi¬ 
cial and authentic government records; and he is entrusted 
by the president with the conduct of all international rela¬ 
tions. Constitutional amendments proposed by Congress 
are submitted to the several states by the secretary of state, 
who likewise announces the ratification of amendments by 
an official proclamation. The Department of State is divided 
into eight bureaus, each of which is entrusted with a par¬ 
ticular branch of the work. 

Secretary of the Treasury .—The duties of the secretary 
of the treasury are to collect the public revenue, to pro¬ 
vide for its safe keeping, to disburse it in the payment of 
the current expenses of the government and the public debt, 
and to issue and redeem the currency. The organization of 
the department is very complex; there are over 7,000 em¬ 
ployees in Washington and 20,000 resident elsewhere. The 
chief items of the public funds are the customs duties col¬ 
lected at ports of entry by 124 collectors stationed near the 
borders of the country and 39 surveyors stationed in the in¬ 
terior; the internal revenue collected by 67 collectors; and 
the corporation anc* income tax collected by the internal 
revenue collectors. The secretary of the treasury has 
charge of the coinage of money; he supervises the four 
mints and the eight essay offices; he directs the office of 
engraving and printing in which the paper money, bonds, 
postage stamps and internal revenue stamps are manufac¬ 
tured; he has general supervision of the 7,000 national 
banks, which are examined periodically by his inspectors; 
he has general charge and oversight of the public debt; he 
protects the customs revenue and prevents smuggling by the 
use of the Revenue Cutter Service consisting of 45 small 
craft; and he prevents the counterfeiting of the money by 


334 


APPENDIX 


the use of the Secret Service. In addition to these duties, 
he has general charge of the construction of public build¬ 
ings, the management of the life-saving and public health 
service, the supervision of the 275 life-saving stations, the 
establishment of marine hospitals for the care of sick and 
disabled seamen, and the supervision of the Quarantine 
Service. The money of the United States is kept in the 
vaults at Washington and in nine sub-treasuries, each in 
charge of an assistant treasurer, located at Baltimore, Bos¬ 
ton, Chicago, Cincinnati, New Orleans, New York, Phila¬ 
delphia, St. Louis and San Francisco. 

Secretary of War .—The secretary of war has general 
jurisdiction over the military establishment and the navi¬ 
gable waters of the United States; he prepares estimates 
of appropriations for his department and supervises their 
expenditures; he has oversight of the Military Academy at 
West Point, the Army War College at Washington, the pub¬ 
lication of the Official Records of the War of the Rebellion, 
questions relating to bridges over navigable streams, and the 
establishment of harbor lines. Plans for national defense, 
the management of the military forces in time of war, and 
the general fighting efficiency of the army, by the president’s 
direction, are under the supervision of the General Staff 
Corps, which also renders professional aid and assistance 
to the secretary of war in matters of command, discipline 
and administration, and consists of a major-general, who is 
the chief commanding officer, and twenty-eight subordinate 
officers. 

Attorney-General ,—The attorney-general is the legal 
adviser of the president and the heads of the departments 
of the executive branch of the government. He interprets 
and construes ambiguous federal statutes; directs the work 
of the United States district attorneys; appears before the 
Supreme Court and the inferior courts in all actions to 
which the general government is a party or is interested; 
supervises clerks and marshals of the United States courts; 
oversees the penal and reformatory institutions of the gen¬ 
eral government; advises the president in pardon cases; 


APPENDIX 


335 


sometimes scrutinizes bills passed by Congress before they 
are signed; and advises the president in the appointment of 
judges and officers of courts. His published opinions have 
great weight in the construction of statutes. The prosecu¬ 
tions which the attorney-general has been obliged to under¬ 
take under the Sherman Anti-Trust Law and the Hepburn 
and Elkins Acts, prohibiting rebates and discriminations, 
have increased the importance of his office and extended 
his authority over the industry of the country. 

Postmaster-General. —The postmaster-general has gen¬ 
eral charge and supervision of the United States mails. Be¬ 
sides the general distribution of the mails, the incidental du¬ 
ties of the department involve the appointment of post¬ 
masters, theoretically exercised by the president, the adjust¬ 
ment of salaries, the city delivery service, the railway mail 
service, foreign mails, stamps, money orders, registered 
mails, classification of mail matter, redemption of damaged 
stamps and postal cards, the rural mail service, dead letters, 
the purchase of supplies, the oversight of post-office build¬ 
ings, the administration of the postals savings system, and 
the general inspection of the service. 

The Secretary of the Navy. —The secretary of the navy 
has general charge of the navy and the naval policy of the 
United States. The secretary and his first assistant are 
civilians, but they have the assistance of a large number 
of naval officers who are skilled in the technical work of the 
department. The work of the department includes the 
organization and maneuvers of the fleet; the recruiting of 
marines; the appointment and promotion of officers; the 
inspection and repair of vessels; the supervision of docks, 
navy yards, the Naval Academy at Annapolis; the War 
College, the schools for enlisted men, hospitals, barracks 
and magazines; the designing and building of men-of-war; 
the fabrication of armor; the furnishing of ammunition and 
explosives; and the installation and maintenance of wire¬ 
less and coaling stations. The Naval Observatory, which is 
located in Washington, publishes the Nautical Almanac. 

Secretary of the Interior. —The secretary of the interior 


336 


APPENDIX 


has general supervision of a large number of matters con¬ 
nected strictly with the domestic policy of the United States. 
The department is subdivided into the following bureaus, 
each with a definite kind of work: The General Land 
Office, which has charge of the location, settlement, survey, 
entry and patenting of the public lands of which there are 
still about 680,000,000 acres. The work of the bureau is 
administered by a commissioner and assistants resident in 
Washington and by a large force of local officers who are 
stationed wherever the lands are located. The Geological 
Survey conducts surveys and prepares maps showing sur¬ 
face formations and the distribution of classified rock for¬ 
mations including deposits of fossils, minerals and other sub¬ 
stances of value. Thus far, about thirty-five per cent, of 
the country has been surveyed. The survey is conducted by 
a director and a corps of scientific assistants. The Reclama¬ 
tion Service has charge of the irrigation of arid lands in 
the West. The Office of Indian Affairs has general charge 
of the Indians, who are wards of the nation, and controls 
the allotment and supervision of their lands. The Patent 
Office supervises the issue of patents and the registration 
of trade marks. The Pension Bureau disburses the pensions 
granted by the government for naval and military services. 
There are (1916) over 8,000,000 pensioners who receive 
$153,000,000 annually. The Bureau of Mines has powers of 
investigation of all mining operations including the safety of 
miners, treatment of ores and use of explosives. The Bureau 
of Education collects educational statistics which are pub¬ 
lished annually, has charge of the public schools and the 
reindeer industry of Alaska and administers the endowment 
fund for higher education in agriculture and the mechanic 
arts. The Department of the Interior also has charge of the 
thirteen national parks and the ten national monuments; 
administers the territories, with the exception of the insu¬ 
lar possessions; has charge of the government insane asy¬ 
lum, the capitol building and grounds, Howard University, 
the Columbian Institution for the deaf and dumb and the 
Freedman’s Hospital. 




APPENDIX 


337 


The Secretary of Agriculture .—The secretary of ag¬ 
riculture has advisory supervision of the agricultural in¬ 
terests of the country. Within the department is a group 
of bureaus, each with a distinct kind of work. The Weather 
Bureau has charge of weather forecasting, including the 
prediction of storms, cold waves, frosts and floods, for the 
benefit of agriculture and navigation, and the supervision of 
the weather stations which are scattered all over the country. 
The Bureau of Animal Industry inspects animals and food 
products, and animals in transit; supervises the quarantine 
stations through which imported live stock must pass; over¬ 
sees the manufacture and distribution of renovated butter; 
and investigates the breeding, feeding and transmissible 
diseases of domestic animals. The Bureau of Plant Indus¬ 
try conducts scientific investigations concerning plants which 
are designed to prevent plant diseases, conserve and in¬ 
crease the fertility of the soil, reclaim arid lands by adapt¬ 
ing plants thereto, and improve the management of farms. 
Under direction of this bureau, garden seeds are distributed 
by congressmen. The Forest Service has control of the 
national forest reserves; cooperates with the state gov¬ 
ernments and individuals in the management and more 
effective use of timber; tests the strength and durability of 
timber, railroad ties and telegraph poles; has charge of the 
forest-fire service; and is charged with the important work 
of conserving forests and water power. The Bureau of 
Chemistry is charged with the enforcement of the Pure 
Food and Drug Act, analyzes foods and drugs to determine 
their nutritive and harmful effects, and conducts prosecu¬ 
tions for the punishment of those who adulterate or mis¬ 
brand foods and drugs. The Bureau of Statistics, through 
its 46,000 field agents, collects the information which is 
embodied in the crop reports. These reports set forth the 
production, distribution and consumption of crops and have 
great influence in forecasting the probable price of agricul¬ 
tural products. The Bureau of Soils analyzes soils, de¬ 
termines the elements in which they are deficient, and pre¬ 
scribes the proper fertilizers and other methods of im- 


338 


APPENDIX 


provement. This work was begun in 1899 and since that 
time over 360,000 square miles have been surveyed, ana¬ 
lyzed and mapped. The Bureau of Entomology collects 
scientific information concerning insects which are injurious 
to plants, crops, fruits and forests; prepares insecticides ; 
introduces beneficial insects; assists in the collection and 
classification of insects; and investigates the relation of in¬ 
sects to human disease. The Bureau of Biological Survey 
investigates the geographical distribution of birds and ani¬ 
mals and their economic importance and relations; has 
charge of the national bird reservations and the bison range; 
and enforces the laws, including the recent migratory bird 
law, intended to protect wild game. The Office of Experi¬ 
ment Stations supervises the agricultural experiment sta¬ 
tions which have been! established in every state and in 
Hawaii, Alaska, Porto Rico and Guam; they conduct in¬ 
vestigations in various parts of the world; and cooperate 
with agricultural colleges and farmers’ institutes in all parts 
of the country. The Office of Public Roads supplies ex¬ 
pert advice for the construction, maintenance and manage¬ 
ment of public highways; cooperates with the highway en¬ 
gineering departments of schools and colleges; and even 
constructs model roads for experimental and demonstra¬ 
tion purposes. 

The Secretary of Commerce .—The duties of the sec¬ 
retary of commerce are to promote and develop both for¬ 
eign and domestic commerce, to oversee the mining and 
manufacturing interests of the country and to safeguard the 
shipping interests and transportation facilities. The work 
of the department is so distributed as to fall within the 
scope of subordinate bureaus. The Bureau of Foreign and 
Domestic Commerce develops markets at home and abroad 
and promotes the manufacturing interests of the country; 
publishes statistics of imports and exports and any move¬ 
ment of unusual interest to manufacturers and producers; 
and issues daily bulletins, based on the reports made by 
consular agents, disclosing the condition of foreign and do¬ 
mestic markets. The Bureau of the Census makes an official 


APPENDIX 


339 


enumeration of the inhabitants of the United States every 
ceil years and supervises the publication of the reports in 
which this census is given; they also prepare other statisti¬ 
cal reports in regard to wealth, debt, taxation, street rail¬ 
ways, banking, electric lighting, telephones and telegraphs. 
The Bureau of Lighthouses establishes and maintains light¬ 
houses, buoys, lightships and other aids to navigation. The 
Bureau of Standards has charge of the standards of weights 
and measures with which .weights and measures used 
throughout the country must be compared. The Bureau of 
Fisheries has general supervision of the propagation of food 
fishes in waters belonging to the United States; they main¬ 
tain and operate fish hatcheries and have control of seal 
and fish industries of Alaska. The Coast and Geodetic 
Survey prepares charts of the coasts and navigable waters 
of the United States, takes deep-sea soundings, marks in¬ 
ternational boundaries and ascertains the character and be¬ 
havior of ocean currents. 

Secretary of Labor .—The secretary of labor is directed 
to promote the welfare of the wage-earners of the United 
States, to improve their working conditions and to advance 
their opportunities for profitable employment. The im¬ 
portant bureaus in this department are the Bureau of Im¬ 
migration, which, enforces the immigration laws, and in¬ 
forms arriving immigrants of desirable positions; the 
Bureau of Naturalization, which oversees the work of issu¬ 
ing naturalization papers; the Children’s Bureau, which in¬ 
vestigates all matters pertaining to the welfare of children; 
and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, which investigates the 
causes of strikes and other industrial controversies. A bi¬ 
monthly bulletin is published showing the condition of labor 
in the United States and in foreign countries; and the de¬ 
partment has charge of the payment of compensation to 
government employees who sustain injuries during the 
course of their work. 

Interstate Commerce Commission .—The Interstate Com¬ 
merce Commission was created in 1889. It consists of 
seven members appointed by the president for terms of 


340 


APPENDIX 


seven years, at salaries of ten thousand dollars per annum. 
The Commission is entrusted with the execution of the 
Interstate Commerce Act, and in discharging that duty has 
charge of all interstate railroads. The powers and duties 
of the Commission are very extensive, and have been con¬ 
siderably increased since the date of its original organiza¬ 
tion. In providing for the intelligent enforcement of the 
Interstate Commerce Act, the Commission has conducted 
investigations to ascertain how the railroads are managing 
their business. They prescribe uniform schedules and ac¬ 
counts; require publicity of joint rates agreed upon by 
different transportation systems, and demand annual re¬ 
ports according to a simple uniform plan; and prescribe 
freight, passenger and sleeping-car rates. By far the most 
extensive undertaking which the commission has been 
called upon to perform is that of the physical valuation of 
the railroads, a task which will require the services of a 
large corps of engineers and will consume several years 
in its completion. By this plan it is hoped that the com¬ 
mission will be able to determine the actual value of all 
railroad rights-of-way, tracks, yards, depots, cars, locomo¬ 
tives, shops and other visible property which the railroads 
possess. With this information in their possession, the 
commission will be better able to determine whether the 
railroads are receiving a fair return on their investments 
and whether they are justified in charging the freight and 
passenger rates which they do. 

Federal Reserve Board .—The Federal Reserve Board 
was created by an act approved December 23, 1913. The 
board consists of seven members; the secretary of the 
treasury and the comptroller of the currency are members 
ex-officio; the other five members are appointed by the 
president; two of the five must be men of banking expe¬ 
rience; one of the five appointive members is designated 
as governor and one as vice-governor. The appointive 
members serve for terms of ten years and receive salaries 
of twelve thousand dollars per annum. There is also an 
Advisory Council which consists of one representative 


APPENDIX 


341 


chosen from each of the twelve Federal Reserve Banks. 
The council acts purely in an advisory capacity, furnish¬ 
ing the Federal Reserve Board with such information and 
suggestions as may be beneficial or indispensable in the suc¬ 
cessful administration of the law. The whole country is 
divided into twelve Federal Reserve Districts, each con¬ 
taining a Federal Reserve City, in which is located a Fed¬ 
eral Reserve Bank, which may establish branch or coun¬ 
try banks in other places in its own district. According to 
the present division of the country, the Federal Reserve 
Cities are: Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Richmond, 
Atlanta, Cleveland, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kan¬ 
sas City, Dallas and San Francisco. National banks are 
required to become members of the Federal Reserve Sys¬ 
tem and membership is open to state banks and trust com¬ 
panies. Each Federal Reserve Bank must have a capital 
of at least four million dollars, and is supervised by a 
board of nine directors; three of these directors are bank¬ 
ers, three are representatives of the commercial and indus¬ 
trial interests of the district and all six are elected by the 
banks which constitute the membership of the district; the 
other three are appointed by the Federal Reserve Board. 
The purposes of the financial system created by the Fed¬ 
eral Reserve Act are to centralize the financial resources 
of the country; to shift the volume of currency from place 
to place in such manner that there will always be a suf¬ 
ficient supply on hand where it is most needed; and to issue 
bank notes with which business may be transacted tem¬ 
porarily until the need for this additional currency passes. 

Civil Service Commission .—The first Federal Civil Ser¬ 
vice Commission was created in 1871, but owing to the 
strongly entrenched spoils system, it was not especially 
active or successful. The present commission was created 
in 1883 and has done very creditable work. The duties 
of this commission are to prescribe and enforce rules and 
regulations for admission to the Civil Service which means 
a job or employment with the federal government; to con¬ 
duct examinations to test the fitness of applicants to do the 


342 


APPENDIX 


work which the government wants done; and to classify 
all positions and determine what kind of an examination 
shall be given for each. Applicants who are successful 
in passing an examination are placed on a certified list 
fromi which the president or the departmental head selects 
an appointee. The object of this system is to secure able 
and qualified persons and to eliminate politics in the selec¬ 
tion of assistants and subordinates. 

Federal Trade Commission .—The Federal Trade Com¬ 
mission was created in 1914. It consists of five members 
appointed by the president for terms of seven years, who 
receive salaries of ten thousand dollars per year. As or¬ 
ganized at present, the commission consists of an Economics 
Department to conduct investigations, an Economic Board 
of Review to pass on matters before they are presented to 
the commission, a Legal Department and a Board of Law 
Review. The duties of this commission are to supervise 
and regulate all industries which do an interstate business, 
except railroads. 


OUTLINE OF THE USUAL DUTIES OF STATE 
OFFICIALS IN THE VARIOUS STATES 

Governor ,—The governor is the most important executive 
officer of the state. The constitution of every state creates 
the office of governor, and in all cases he is elected by 
popular vote. As the chief executive officer of the state, the 
governor in nearly all states is entrusted with the execution 
of the laws, the appointment and often the removal of state 
officers, boards and commissions and the exercise of the 
pardoning power. In the execution of the laws, the govef 
nor has the assistance of the state, county and city officials 
and the state militia. His control over local executive offi¬ 
cers, including county sheriffs and the municipal police, 
varies in the several states; in some states he has authority 
to remove officers who refuse or neglect to perform their 
duties; in other states he has no power over such officers; 
but in all cases the morai* influence which he may exert 
over these officers is so extensive that they can not success¬ 
fully disregard his recommendations. As commander-in¬ 
chief of the military forces of the state, the governor has the 
the power to call out the state militia to suppress lawless¬ 
ness, quell riots and other disturbances. In case of war, 
of course, his military authority is subordinate to that of 
the president. In those states which maintain a state 
police system, the governor has another and very effec¬ 
tive agency for maintaining order; these police act 
directly under his orders and may be sent to any part of the 
state. In a few states the governor appoints the judges of 
the Supreme Court; this is a duty of the very highest im¬ 
portance, since by virtue of the American doctrine that courts 
may declare laws unconstitutional, the Supreme Court 
judges exercise a legislative function equivalent to a veto. 
As a part of the legislature, the duties of the governor mav 

343 


344 


APPENDIX 


be of the greatest importance. He is the only person in the 
state who represents all the people in all cases; he recom¬ 
mends to the consideration of the general assembly the pass¬ 
age of certain laws which he deems of importance; these 
are known as administration measures. He may prepare 
measures and secure their introduction by some member 
who is in sympathy with his proposals, and measures which 
are known to emanate from the governor’s office are be¬ 
coming more frequent and are regarded with increasing 
favor. After a bill is passed it does not become a law until 
it secures his assent, and the power he has of insuring the 
defeat of a measure is far greater than that of any mem¬ 
ber of the general assembly, since no measure which he 
has vetoed becomes a law unless repassed by the members 
of both houses, usually by a two-thirds vote. Compara¬ 
tively few laws are enacted without having secured the 
governor’s signature. The governor also has the power 
to call extra sessions of the legislature to consider emerg¬ 
ency measures, and in some cases only those matters which 
he recommends in his message may be considered at such 
sessions. 

Lieutenant-Governor .—The constitutions of more than 
30 states have created the office of lieutenant-governor. In 
all cases he is elected by the people. In case of the death, 
removal or disability of the governor, the lieutenant-gover¬ 
nor succeeds to that office. In some states the lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor is a member of executive boards, but his usual and 
only function is to preside over the Senate during a session 
of the general assembly, but he has no right to vote except 
in case of a tie. 

STATE OFFICERS, BOARDS AND COMMISSIONS 

Secretary^ of State .—There is a secretary of state in every 
state of the Union, who is the record officer of the state 
and as such has charge of the official copies of all state 
papers, including the enrolled copies of the constitution 
and the laws; he has charge of the state seal and certifies 
all official proclamations and other documents. He receives 


APPENDIX 


345 


election returns and certifies the results of all state and 
national elections. In all cases the office is elective and the 
term varies from one to four years. By virtue of his office 
the secretary of state frequently discharges other duties such 
as the issuance of incorporation papers or the registration 
of automobiles. 

Attorney-General .—The attorney-general is the legal 
counsel and adviser of the state. He appears as the attor¬ 
ney for the state in the courts in all cases in which the state 
is interested. He appears in defense of all state laws which 
are attacked in court, and defends actions brought against 
state officers in their official capacity. He also gives opin¬ 
ions to state and local officers concerning the meaning of 
laws. The creation of boards and commissions has extended 
the duties and increased the powers and importance of the 
attorney-general. In more than forty states the attorney- 
general is elected by popular vote, and the term varies from 
one to four years. 

Treasurer .—The treasurer has general charge of all state 
money and receives and pays out all money belonging to the 
state; in preparing his accounts, he is usually required to 
keep the funds for different institutions separate; and he 
maintains all these funds in banks, which are usually known 
as public depositories. In paying out public money, he either 
makes the payment directly in cash or by check on a bank or 
state depository, but no payments can be made unless the 
state auditor or comptroller has first issued his warrant. The 
office of state treasurer is usually elective. 

Auditor or Comptroller .—The auditor or comptroller is 
the state bookkeeper. Before any claim against the state 
is paid, he must be sure that the claim is valid, that its pay¬ 
ment has actually been authorized by law and that the neces¬ 
sary funds have been appropriated and are available. No 
state funds can be paid out unless the auditor or comp¬ 
troller first issues his warrant. Auditors are frequently 
members of state executive boards, such as the board of 
pardons, board of equalization, tax board and board of edu¬ 
cation. The office of state auditor is provided for in most 


346 


APPENDIX 


state constitutions and they are usually elective. In many 
states the auditor also performs the duty of bank and in¬ 
surance commissioner of departments. 

Superintendent of Public Instruction. —The superintendent 
of public instruction, or commissioner of education, has gen¬ 
eral charge of the entire educational system of the state, but 
his powers vary widely in different states. In some states 
he examines and licenses teachers; assists in the preparation 
of examination questions; fixes standards of qualifications 
for teachers; oversees high schools; directs the work in 
industrial and vocational education; apportions the school 
funds on the basis prescribed by law; and collects and pub¬ 
lishes educational statistics. By virtue of his office he is 
usually a member of the state board of education, if one 
exists, and as such may assist in directing the higher educa¬ 
tional institutions of the state. There is a superintendent 
of public instruction in practically every state. In most 
states the office is elective and the term varies from one to 
five years. 

Board of Health. —Boards of health exist at the present 
time in forty-seven states. In some states their powers are 
strictly limited, in other states, such as Minnesota, Pennsyl¬ 
vania and Indiana, the rules and regulations issued by the 
board of health have the same force as law. In general, the 
duties of state boards of health are to safeguard and pro¬ 
mote the public health, and for that purpose they are author¬ 
ized to establish quarantines against contagious diseases, 
abate nuisances and otherwise promote public health pro¬ 
tection. Among the detailed duties which they perform may 
be enumerated the free distribution of vaccines and anti¬ 
toxins, the inspection of tenement houses to determine 
whether they are fit for human habitation, the better care 
and embalming of the dead, the inspection of water supplies 
to insure its purity, the proper disposition of garbage, filth 
and carcasses of dead animals, the enforcement of regula¬ 
tions relative to the ventilation of schoolhouses and factories 
and the sale of impure food and drugs. 

Public Service Commission. —The state public service 


APPENDIX 


347 


commission has general control of all public utilities which 
include steam, interurban and street railroads, waterworks, 
gas works, telegraph and telephone systems. Their duties 
are, upon complaint, to fix maximum rates which these pub¬ 
lic utilities may charge for their services; to prescribe the 
kind and quality of' service which must be supplied; to 
require the installation of health and safety devices; to in¬ 
vestigate accidents; to hear complaints made by patrons; to 
approve franchises; and to authorize the issuance of stocks 
and bonds. In several of the states the commission is called 
the railroad commission. 

Fire Marshal .—Several of the states have created the 
office of fire marshal whose duty it is to reduce the fire 
losses of the state. This is done by the issuance of rules 
and regulations providing for the proper disposition of 
combustible material, the storing of inflammable substances, 
such as gasoline and explosives, and the condemnation and 
destruction of buildings in which fires might originate and 
spread to other buildings. One of his chief functions is to 
spread information on the prevention of fires. 

Superintendent of Insurance .—‘The duty of the superin¬ 
tendent of insurance is to supervise and regulate insurance 
companies. In some states this function is discharged by 
a separate board and in others it is entrusted to some other 
state officer, such as the auditor or comptroller. While these 
supervisory functions are not uniform in the different states 
they include in general the power to determine whether in¬ 
surance companies are properly organized and managed. 
They also have power over the filing of reports, the invest¬ 
ment of assets, the licensing of agents and in a few states 
the regulation of fire insurance rates. 

Banking Department .—The duty of examining state banks 
is entrusted in some states to a special board and in others 
to some state officer, such as the bank superintendent, audi¬ 
tor or comptroller. Inspectors of the banking department 
examine all state banks frequently to determine whether they 
are in a safe and solvent condition. Regular and special 
reports are required to be made to the banking department. 


348 


APPENDIX 


Tax Commissioners. —There are permanent tax commis¬ 
sions in thirteen states and a permanent tax commissioner 
in six states. The commissioner or commissioners are ap¬ 
pointed by the governor in all states except North Carolina, 
where the office is elective. The duties of these officers are 
to assess property, which extends into more than one coun¬ 
ty, such as railroads, telegraph and telephone lines, and ex¬ 
press and sleeping car service; they equalize assessments 
between different localities of the state; instruct local as¬ 
sessors in the performance of their duties; and prescribe 
uniform methods in imposing and recording assessments. 
In a considerable number of states, special or temporary tax 
commissions have been created to investigate the tax ques¬ 
tion, determine the defects in existing laws and recommend 
desirable changes. 

Board of Pardons. —The constitutions of a considerable 
number of the states provide for the creation of a board 
of pardon. It is the duty of this board to consider all 
applications made by convicts who are serving a sentence 
in any of the penal or reformatory institutions of the state, 
asking to be discharged before they have served the full 
term for which they were sentenced. The governor usually 
accepts the recommendations of the board and acts accord¬ 
ingly in extending clemency to prisoners who have mani¬ 
fested a genuine desire to reform. 

Board of Charities and Corrections. —It is the duty of the 
state board of charities and corrections to visit, inspect, 
supervise and report upon all benevolent, reformatory and 
charitable institutions administered by the state or by any 
county, municipality or private organization therein, and 
to care for and oversee dependent and delinquent children. 
In a number of states the duty of managing all the institu¬ 
tions is in the hands of the state board. 

Highway Commissioner. —To promote the good roads 
movement the office of highway commissioner has been 
created in several of the states. The duties of the commis¬ 
sioner are to map out important trunk line roads; to de¬ 
termine the amount of traffic over roads in various parts 


APPENDIX 


349 > 


of the state; to prescribe material for and the proper scien¬ 
tific methods of road construction; to conduct experiments 
in road making; to pass upon road plans; to administer the 
state road fund; and to cooperate with local officials in the 
solution of the highway problem. 

Conservation Commission. —A few of the states have 
created conservation commissions whose duty it is to pro¬ 
mote the conservation of the natural resources of the 
state, including minerals, forests, water power, wild game, 
the soil and other resources which are irreplaceable. 

Board of Irrigation and Drainage. —Most of the western 
states, having extensive areas of arid lands, have created 
irrigation commissions whose duty it is to provide for the 
reclamation of these lands by the construction of irrigation 
works, and to cooperate with the Reclamation Service of 
the federal government. In some of the central and south¬ 
ern states, having large tracts of swamp lands, drainage 
commissions have been created to supervise extensive 
drainage projects and to provide for the coordination of 
closely related local projects. 

Fish and Game Commission. —Fish and game commissions 
exist in practically every state in the Union. The functions 
of these commissions are to propagate and distribute food 
and game fishes; to enforce the laws enacted for the pro¬ 
tection and preservation of fish and game; to license hunt¬ 
ers and fishermen; to collect and disburse the revenue de¬ 
rived from these sources; and to manage fish hatcheries. 
Some of the tide-water states have separate commissions 
to supervise inland and shore fisheries, including oyster beds. 
In all cases the members of these commissions are ap¬ 
pointed by the governor. 

Workmen's Compensation Commissions. —In a consid¬ 
erable number of states compensation commissions have 
been created to administer the workmen’s compensation laws 
which have been enacted during the last few years, and to 
arbitrate industrial controversies which arise between capi¬ 
tal and labor. 

Labor Bureaus. —Bureaus of labor and labor statistics 


350 


APPENDIX 


exist in forty-one states. They usually preceded the crea¬ 
tion of workmen’s compensation commissions and in many 
cases have been absorbed by the latter. They were created 
to collect accurate information as a basis for legislation 
regulating the relation of employers and employees, in 
order to better the conditions of labor and furnish pub¬ 
lished statistics for the use of labor organizations, employ¬ 
ers of labor, statesmen and social workers. 

State Board of Agriculture .are departments of 
agriculture in more than thirty states, but the duties which 
they are called upon to discharge are not uniform. In gen¬ 
eral these departments oversee the agricultural work of the 
state and enforce the laws pertaining to agriculture, and 
have general supervision of the state fair. In some of the 
states, the commission also has charge of commerce, indus¬ 
tries, mining, immigration and labor. 

Printing Board .—The amount of supplies which a state 
consumes in the course of a year and the quantity of print¬ 
ing and binding which must be done are very extensive and 
involve the expenditure of thousands of dollars. Practi¬ 
cally all of the states have provided for the creation of a 
state board of printing and binding, which has general 
supervision of the purchase and distribution of supplies and 
the printing of the annual or biennial reports issued by the 
state officers. In addition, the board usually has general 
oversight of the printing of legislative bills, the session laws 
of the general assembly, the preparation of the ballots used 
at state and national elections, and binding of newspapers 
and other documents which are received and preserved for 
historical purposes in the archives of the state library. Con¬ 
tracts for printing, binding and supplies are usually let to the 
lowest responsible competitive bidder. The person obtain¬ 
ing such a contract is usually known as the state printer 
and does all printing for the state for the period of time 
specified in his contract. In some states the state has its 
own printing plant, and in others prison labor is employed 
in doing some of the state printing. 

Examining Boards .—It is to the interest of the state that 


APPENDIX 


351 


those of its citizens who practise the profession should 
be capable of rendering efficient and intelligent services. 
For the purpose of ascertaining the fitness of persons desir¬ 
ing to enter the professions and to exclude those who are 
incompetent, examining boards have been created to ex¬ 
amine and license physicians, dentists, embalmers, nurses, 
lawyers, pharmacists and veterinary surgeons. These du¬ 
ties are usually performed by special boards. These boards 
are usually appointed by the governor; they are composed 
of practitioners of known ability and high standing in 
their professions; and they hold one or more examinations 
each year. These boards also have the authority to revoke 
licenses for immorality, negligence or malpractice. Several 
states have a board of mines to examine miners, mine fore¬ 
men, shot-firers and fire-bosses. 

State Board of Accounts .—In a few states the state 
board of accounts supervises the financial accounts of all 
state officers and of all the officers of counties, townships 
and cities. The purpose of state supervision is to see that all 
public money is properly expended and to prevent embez¬ 
zlement or graft on the part of public officials. In order to 
make the examination of accounts easier, the state board 
has authority to prescribe uniform books and methods of 
keeping accounts. If a public official is not sure that a 
contemplated expenditure of public money is in strict con¬ 
formity with law, he may obtain an opinion of the state 
board. 

Board of Education .—Several of the states maintain a 
state board of education, which has general charge of the 
educational work of the state, and usually cooperates with 
the state superintendent of public instruction in carrying out 
its plans. The members of these state boards are usually 
men of acknowledged educational standing, and frequently 
are actively engaged in school work and serve without pay. 
In some states they formulate the educational policy of the 
state, determine what subjects shall be included in the com¬ 
mon and high-school curriculum, prescribe the character 
of vocational education, provide for the classification 


352 


APPENDIX 


and certification of high schools, and perform other similar 
duties. 

Entomologist .—The state entomologist is authorized to 
enforce the laws which are intended to eradicate insects 
which are injurious to fruit trees and plants, such as the 
San Jose scale and destructive moths. He is empowered 
to inspect all nursery stock to prevent the spread of plant 
diseases and to destroy orchards which are found to be so 
badly infected as to be beyond hope of recovery and likely 
to spread disease to other trees. 

State Library and Public Library Commission .—In most 
of the states there is a state library or a public library com¬ 
mission and in some states there are both. The state li¬ 
brary is usually the depository for state documents and 
historical records. In some states it is a reference library 
where local libraries or citizens may borrow books or refer 
questions for answer. The public library commission is or¬ 
ganized to aid local communities in the establishment of 
libraries. It usually has charge of the traveling libraries 
vviiloh any community may borrow from them. 


OUTLINE OF THE USUAL DUTIES OF COUNTY 
OFFICERS IN THE DIFFERENT STATES 


The County .—The county is the most common of the 
local governmental areas in the United States. There are 
about 3,000 counties in the United States; Texas has 243, 
Rhode Island 5, and Delaware 3; the average number of 
counties per state is from 60 to 100. The usual area of a 
county is from 400 to 650 square miles and the average 
population from 10,000 to 30,000. Each county has a form 
of local government, which is practically the same through¬ 
out the United States, and a group of county officers who 
are entrusted by law with the performance of certain duties. 
The importance of the county as a unit of local govern¬ 
ment varies in different parts of the United States In 
New England, with its town meeting, it is of least im¬ 
portance; in the South, where the township is practically 
non-existent, the county is of very great importance; while 
in the West the duties of local government are about equally 
divided between the county and township. 

County Board .—There is a county board in every state 
with the exception of Rhode Island; this board is usually 
composed of three or five members, elected by the people. 
Sometimes these boards are composed of from fifteen to 
fifty members called supervisors, elected by the cities or 
townships of the county. The county board exercises 
rather extensive powers. It levies the county tax, makes 
all appropriations, buys county supplies, oversees the jails 
and poor farms, constructs bridges, opens new roads, ap¬ 
points the non-elective county officers, oversees county asy¬ 
lums and hospitals, authorizes drainage and reclamation 
works, sometimes grants liquor licenses, lays out townships 
and election precincts, selects county depositories for the 
safe-keepinp- of the public funds, and constructs county 
buildings. 


353 



354 


APPENDIX 

Sheriff .—The office of sheriff is provided for in every 
state, and is elective in all states except Rhode Island. It 
is the oldest county office, but has been deprived of much 
of its former importance. The duties of the sheriff are 
to preserve peace, to quell riots, to arrest fugitives and 
criminals, to serve papers on persons who have violated 
the law and to take immediate charge of persons who have 
been arrested and are confined in the county jail awaiting 
trial. 

Auditor .—A county auditor is provided for in twenty- 
seven states and the office is elective in twelve states. The 
auditor is the county bookkeeper; he keeps accounts of all 
receipts and expenditures of county money, prepares the 
books in which county taxes are recorded, issues his war¬ 
rant on the treasurer for the expenditure of county money, 
and acts in many cases as the clerk of the county board 
and the board which equalizes the assessments for taxes. 

Treasurer .—The office of county treasurer exists in all 
states except two; in five states the office is appointive; in 
all others it is elective. The county treasurer collects and 
pays out all county money, and in some cases acts as a mem¬ 
ber of the county board which equalizes the assessments for 
taxes. 

Clerk of the Court .—A clerk of the court or county clerk 
is provided for in practically every state and the office is 
almost invariably elective. The duties of the clerk are to 
keep the court record; to summon jurors and subpoena 
witnesses for court trials; to issue the first papers to per¬ 
sons desiring to become naturalized citizens; to prepare 
election ballots; to receive, count and certify election re¬ 
turns; and to issue marriage, hunting and fishing licenses. 

Registrar of Deeds .—Every state must provide some 
method of recording deeds which establish title to land. 
In about half the states this work is done by an elective 
officer known as the registrar or recorder of deeds. In other 
states the work is done by some other county officer. The 
registrar records deeds and mortgages in a book kept for 


APPENDIX 


355 


that purpose, and every person whose land is so recorded is 
sure that he can not be lawfully deprived of it. 

Surveyor .—The office of surveyor is provided for in 
thirty-eight states; in three states the office is appointive and 
elective in the others. The duties of the surveyor are to 
determine and mark the lines which separate the lands of 
adjoining owners, to set corner-stones, and to perform the 
engineering work on highways and ditches. 

Coroner .—The county coroner holds official inquests in 
case of the sudden death of any person in the county, to 
determine the cause of the death and whether any other 
person is guilty of murder or violence. 

Superintendent of Schools .—There is a county superin¬ 
tendent of schools in all except the New England states. 
The office is appointive in twelve states and elective in 
twenty-eight. County superintendents exercise general 
control of the schools of the county; they examine and li¬ 
cense teachers and conduct institutes and associations for 
the benefit of teachers. 

Health Officer .—There is a county health officer in eigh¬ 
teen states, who in all cases is appointed. The county health 
officer has authority to quarantine persons who are afflicted 
with contagious diseases; to take measures necessary to 
suppress epidemics; to order insanitary restaurants and 
boarding houses to be cleaned; and in some cases to 
fumigate rooms or houses in which persons have been ill 
with contagious diseases. 

Superintendent of the Poor .—Provision has been made 
in every state for a superintendent or overseer of the poor; 
in some states there is a county officer and in other states 
a township officer. The superintendent or overseer of the 
poor supplies the poor and needy people of the county with 
food, clothing, fuel, school-books and other supplies which 
they may require. 

Prosecuting Attorney .—With but few exceptions, the 
prosecuting attorney, district or state attorney, in all states 
is elected. It is his duty to prosecute all violators of the 
law on behalf of the state. He also conducts preliminary 


356 


APPENDIX 


investigations which are made by the grand jury and gives 
them such other assistance as they may require. 

Board of Equalization .—Several states provide for county 
boards of equalization to adjust the assessments of property 
for purposes of taxation. This is to prevent one township 
or one taxpayer from paying on an assessment higher than 
another. 

County Assessor .—There is a county assessor in twenty- 
five states, elected in all cases by the people. It is the usual 
duty of the county assessor to locate property which has 
not been given in for taxation by the owners and enter it 
on the tax books; to equalize assessments of property be¬ 
tween the several townships of his county; to instruct and 
cooperate with township assessors in securing a just valua¬ 
tion of property for taxation and to serve as a member of 
the county board whicli equalizes the assessments for taxa¬ 
tion. 


OUTLINE OF THE USUAL DUTIES OF TOWNSHIP 
OFFICERS IN THE DIFFERENT STATES 


Towns or Townships .—The town or township is the 
smallest unit of local government. It originated in the New 
England states, where the name town has always been ap¬ 
plied. In the western states the term township has in¬ 
variably been used. Strictly speaking, the township does 
not exist in the southern states. 

Town Meeting .—In New England, annual meetings of all 
the electors living within a town or township are held to 
select officers and to pass local ordinances or by-laws. The 
local ordinances enacted at these town meetings cover a 
wide range of subjects, including the levy of the town tax, 
appropriations, borrowing money, granting liquor licenses, 
and the adoption of measures relative to roads, cemeteries, 
waterworks, the town hall and the town library. 

Selectmen and Trustees .—In the New England states, 
the chief officers of the town are the selectmen, from three 
to nine in number, chosen at the annual town meeting for 
terms of one or three years. The duties of the selectmen 
are to call town meetings, to oversee town property, to es¬ 
tablish highways and drains, to grant licenses and to over¬ 
see elections. Occasionally, they serve as a board of health, 
as assessors, as overseers of the poor and appoint subordi¬ 
nate town officers. Elsewhere, throughout the United States 
and particularly in the central and western states the chief 
township officer is the trustee or board of trustees. The 
duties of these officers vary, but in general they include the 
general oversight of township property, repairing of high¬ 
ways, furnishing school supplies, hiring teachers, construct¬ 
ing bridges, assisting the poor and controlling the elections. 

Town Clerk .—The town or township clerk performs a 

357 



358 


APPENDIX 


variety of purely clerical duties; he ranks next In Im¬ 
portance to the selectmen or trustees and is usually elective. 
His duties are to call the town meetings; to preserve the 
township records; to issue marriage, pedler and auctioneer 
licenses; to register cattle brands; to approve liquor licenses 
and to take the township census. When no such office 
exists, these duties are performed by the trustees. 

Constable. —Constables are the peace officers of towns, 
townships, counties, precincts or parishes; and under direc¬ 
tion of the county or circuit court or the justice of the peace, 
they serve warrants and make arrests. In some states, they 
perform the duties of assessors or collectors of taxes. In 
New England, constables are chosen at the town meetings, 
in other states they are chosen at the general election. 

Commissioner or Supervisor of Highways. —Highway 
supervisors, commissioners or path-masters have charge of 
the construction and repair of township roads; the office 
is sometimes elective and sometimes appointive. Townships 
are usually divided into two or more road districts and one 
supervisor is assigned to the management of each district. 

Assessor. —It is the duty of the township assessor, where 
such an office exists, to value and list all taxable property 
and polls within his township and return the list to the 
officer whose duty it is to enter these lists on the tax books 
and prepare them for collection. 

Justice of the Peace. —Justices of the peace are minor ju¬ 
dicial officers who are authorized to prevent breaches of 
the peace and who possess power to try and sentence per¬ 
sons for the commission of petty misdemeanors and to 
commit for trial before a higher court those accused of 
more serious offenses. In seven states justices of the 
peace are appointed; in all other states elective. Each town¬ 
ship has one or more justices; terms of office are short, 
but reelection or reappointment is the rule. 


DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
(In Congress, July 4, 1776) 

The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen 
United States of America 

When in the course of human events, it becomes neces¬ 
sary for one people to dissolve the political bands which 
have connected them with another, and to assume among the 
powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which 
the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a 
decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separa¬ 
tion. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are 
created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with 
certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Lib¬ 
erty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these 
rights. Governments are* instituted among Men, deriving 
their just powers from the consent of the governed, that 
whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive 
of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to 
abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its 
foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in 
such form, as to them shall seemi most likely to effect their 
Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
Governments long established should not be changed for 
light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience 
hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while 
evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long 
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the 
same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute 
Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off 



360 


APPENDIX 


such Government, and to provide new Guards for their 
future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of 
these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which con¬ 
strains them to alter their former Systems of Government. 
The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history 
of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct 
object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these 
States. To provide this, let Facts be submitted to a candid 
world. 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome 
and necessary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of imme¬ 
diate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their 
operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when sus¬ 
pended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation 
of large districts of people, unless those people would relin¬ 
quish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right 
inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places un¬ 
usual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of 
their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them 
into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for 
opposing with manly firmness his invasion on the rights 
of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, 
to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Pow¬ 
ers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People 
at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean¬ 
time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, 
and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these 
States, for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturali¬ 
zation of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage 
their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new 
Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by re- 


APPENDIX 


361 


fusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Pow¬ 
ers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his vfill alone, for the 
tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of 
their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent 
hither swarms of Officers to harness our People, and eat 
out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies 
without the Consent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the Military independence of 
and superior to the Civil Power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdic¬ 
tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our 
laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legis¬ 
lation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. 

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment 
for any Murders which they should commit on the In^- 
habitants of these States. 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world. 

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent. 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial 
by J--;'. 

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended 
offenses. 

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a 
neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary 
government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render 
it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing 
the same absolute rule into these Colonies. 

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most val¬ 
uable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our 
Governments. 

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring them¬ 
selves invested with Power to legislate for us in all cases 
whatsoever. 


362 


APPENDIX 


He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out 
of his Protection and waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt 
our towns, and destroyed the Lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign 
Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation 
and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty 
and perfidy scarcely parallel in the most barbarous ages, 
and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on 
the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become 
the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall 
themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and 
has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our fron¬ 
tiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of 
warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes 
and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned 
for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated 
Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A 
Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which 
may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. 

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British 
brethren. We have warned them from time to time of 
attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable 
jurisdiction ovc"* us. We have reminded them of the cir¬ 
cumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have 
appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we 
have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred 
to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably irlter- 
rupt our connections and correspondence. They too have 
been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We 
must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces 
our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man¬ 
kind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States 
of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to 


APPENDIX 


363 


the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our 
intentions, do, in the Name and Authority of the good Peo¬ 
ple of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That 
these United States Colonies are, and of Right ought to be 
Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from 
all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political 
connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is 
and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and In¬ 
dependent States, they have full Power to levy War, con¬ 
clude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to 
do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may 
of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with 
a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we 
mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and 
our sacred Honor. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


1787 


PREAMBLE 

We, the People of the United States, in order to form a 
more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran¬ 
quillity, provide for the common defense, promote the gen¬ 
eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITU¬ 
TION FOR THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

ARTICLE I 

Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall con¬ 
sist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed 
of members chosen every second year by the people of the 
several States, and the electors in each State shall have 
the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the State legislature. 

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven 
years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, 
when elected.bean inhabitant of that State in which he shall 
be chosen. 

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
among the several States which may be included within this 
Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall 
be determined by adding to the whole number of free per- 

364 



APPENDIX 


365 


sons, including those bound to service for a term of years, 
and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within 
three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand; but each State shall have at least one Rep¬ 
resentative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the 
State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, 
Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Planta¬ 
tions one, Connecticut five. New York six. New Jersey four, 
Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia 
ten. North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia 
three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of 
election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker 
and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeach¬ 
ment. 

Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be com¬ 
posed of two Senators from each State, elected by the peo¬ 
ple thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one 
vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications 
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
state legislatures. 

Amendment adopted 1913. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence 
of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may 
be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the 
first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second 
year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, 
and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth yeal, 
so that one-third may be chosen every second year. When 
vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the 
Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue 


366 


APPENDIX 


writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the 
Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof 
to make temporary appointments until the people fill the 
vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to effect 
the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes 
valid as part of the constitution. 

Amendment adopted 1913. 

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained 
to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of 
the LFnited States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice-President of the United States shall be Presi¬ 
dent of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be 
equally divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, 
or when he shall exercise the office of President of the 
United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach¬ 
ments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath 
or affirmation. When the President of the United States 
is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall 
be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the 
members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend fur¬ 
ther than to removal from office, and disqualification to 
hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under 
the United States: but the party convicted shall neverthe¬ 
less be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and 
punishment, according to law. 

Sec. 4. The times, places and manner of holding elec¬ 
tions for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed 
in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress 
may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, 
except as to the places of choosing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, 


APPENDIX 


367 


and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, 
unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 

Sec. 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, 
returns and qualifications of its own members, and a ma¬ 
jority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; 
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and 
may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent mem¬ 
bers, in such manner, and under such penalties as each 
House may provide. 

Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the 
concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts 
as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas 
and nays of the members of either House on any question 
shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered 
on the journal. 

Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, 
without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than 
three days, nor to any other place than that in which the 
two Houses shall be sitting. 

Sec. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive 
a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, 
and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They 
shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the 
peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at 
the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in 
either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under 
the authority of the United States, which shall have been 
created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in¬ 
creased during such time; and no person holding any office 
under the United States, shall be a member of either House 
during his continuance in office. 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenues shall originate in 


368 


APPENDIX 


the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose 
or concur with amendments as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, 
be presented to the President of the United States; if he 
approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with 
his objections to that House in which it shall have origi¬ 
nated, who shall enter the objections at large on their 
journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such recon¬ 
sideration two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the 
bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the 
other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and 
if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a 
law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall 
be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the per¬ 
sons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the 
journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be 
returned by the President within ten days (Sundays ex¬ 
cepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same 
shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress, by their adjournment prevent its return, in 
which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives may be neces¬ 
sary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre¬ 
sented to the President of the United States; and before the 
same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being 
disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules 
and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and col¬ 
lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and 
provide for the common defense and general welfare of 
the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall 
be uniform throughout the United States. 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 


APPENDIX 


369 


To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uni¬ 
form laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the 
United States; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the se¬ 
curities and current coin of the United States; 

To establish post-offices and post-roads; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the 
exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 

To declare war, grant letters df marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water. 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term^ than two 
years; 

To provide and maintain a navy; 

To make rules for the government and regulations of the 
land and naval forces; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel inva¬ 
sions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining, the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be 
employed in the service of the United States, reserving to 
the States respectively, the appointment of the officers and 
the authority of training the militia according to the dis¬ 
cipline prescribed by Congress; 

To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, 
by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Con¬ 
gress, become the seat of the government of the United 
States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur¬ 
chased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- 


370 


APPENDIX 


zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; 

And to make all laws which shall be necessary and prop¬ 
er for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and 
all other powers vested by this Constitution in the govern¬ 
ment of the United States, or in any department or officer 
thereof. 

Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons 
as any of the States now existing shall think proper to ad¬ 
mit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the 
year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or 
duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be 
suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the 
public safety may require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless 
in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore 
directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of com¬ 
merce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of 
another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be 
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in con¬ 
sequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular 
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
all public money shall be published from time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: 
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under 
them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept 
of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind what¬ 
ever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. 

Sec. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance 
or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; 
coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold 
and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any 


APPENDIX 


371 


bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the ob¬ 
ligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No State 
shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso¬ 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the 
net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State 
on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury 
of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, 
without the censent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, 
keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in 
such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a 
President of the United States of America. He shall hold 
his office during the term of four years, and, together with 
the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected, 
as follows: 

Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legis¬ 
lature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to 
the whole number of Senators and Representative^ to which 
the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator 
or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the 
electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; 
which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of 
the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Con¬ 
stitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither 
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have 
attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen 
years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of 


372 


APPENDIX 


his death, resignation or inability to discharge the powers 
and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for 
the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both 
of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President, and such officer shall act ac¬ 
cordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his serv¬ 
ices, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
diminished during the period for which he shall have been 
elected; and he shall not receive, within that period, any 
other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation: 

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully 
execute the office of President of the United States, and 
will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend 
the Constitution of the United States.’’ 

Sec. 2. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of 
the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia 
of the several States, when called into the actual service of 
the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, 
of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, 
upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and par¬ 
dons for offenses against the United States, except in cases 
of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the 
Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by 
and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint 
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of 
Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States 
whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, 
and which shall be established by law; but the Congress 
may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 


APPENDIX 


373 


officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by grant¬ 
ing commissions which shall expire at the end of their next 
session. 

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to 
their consideration such measures as he shall judge neces¬ 
sary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, 
convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of dis¬ 
agreement between them, with respect to the time of ad¬ 
journment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public 
ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully 
executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United 
States. 

Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil offi¬ 
cers of the United States, shall be removed from office on 
impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or 
other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States, 
shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior 
courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and 
establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior 
courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compen¬ 
sation, which shall not be diminished during their continU' 
ance in office. 

Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in 
law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of 
the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under their authority;—to all cases affecting ambas¬ 
sadors, other public ministers and consuls;—to all cases of 
admirality and maritime jurisdiction;—to controversies to 


374 


APPENDIX 


which the United States shall be a party;—to controversies 
between two or more States;—^between a State and citizens 
of another State;—^between citizens of different States; 
between citizens of the same State claiming lands under 
grants of different States, and between a State, or the citi¬ 
zens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, 
the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all 
the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall 
have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with 
such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, 
shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State 
where the said crimes shall have been committed; but 
when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at 
such place or places as the Congress may by law have di¬ 
rected. 

Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist 
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be 
convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two wit¬ 
nesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open 
court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punish¬ 
ment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work cor¬ 
ruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the 
person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

Section 1. F’ull faith and credit shall be given in each 
State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings 
of every other State. And the Congress may by general 
laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and 
proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Sec. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or 



APPENDIX 


375 


other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in 
another State, shall on demand of the executive authority 
of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be re¬ 
moved to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of 
any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such 
service or labor, but shall be delivered upon claim of the 
party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Sec. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress 
into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or 
erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any 
State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or 
parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of 
the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make 
all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or 
other property belonging to the United States; and nothing 
in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice 
any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State 
in this Union a republican form of government, and shall 
protect each of them against invasion; and on application 
of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legisla« 
ture can not be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall 
deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Con¬ 
stitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two- 
thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro¬ 
posing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to 
all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several 
States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the 
one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by 
the Congress: Provided, That no amendment which may 


376 


APPENDIX 


be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses 
in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, 
without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against 
the United States under this Constitution, as under the 
confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the 
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and 
the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing 
in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and 
the members of the several State Legislatures, and all ex¬ 
ecutive and judicial officers, both of the United States 
and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirma¬ 
tion, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall 
ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States, shall 
be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution be¬ 
tween the States so ratifying the same. 




ARTICLES IN AMENDMENTS OF THE CON¬ 
STITUTION 


ARTICLE I 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or 
abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the 
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition 
the government for a redress of grievances. 

The first ten amendments were adopted in 1790 in ful¬ 
filment of a demand for a bill of rights. They apply to the 
national government and limit its powers but do not re¬ 
strict the power of the States with respect to its people. 

A.RTICLE II 

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security 
of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear 
arms, shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any 
house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of 
war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches 
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall 
issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affir¬ 
mation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, 
and the persons or things to be seized. 

377 


378 


APPENDIX 


ARTICLE V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or other¬ 
wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indict¬ 
ment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land 
or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service 
in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be 
subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to 
be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, lib¬ 
erty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use, without just com¬ 
pensation. 

ARTICLE VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of 
the State and district wherein the crime shall have been 
committed, which district shall have been previously ascer¬ 
tained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause 
of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining wit¬ 
nesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel 
for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy 
shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall 
be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be other¬ 
wise re-examined in any court of the United States, than 
according to the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines 
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 




APPENDIX 


379 


ARTICLE IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained 
by the people. 

ARTICLE X 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States are reserved 
to the States, respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be con¬ 
strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced 
or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens 
of another State, or by citizens or subjects of- any foreign 
State. 

This amendment was adopted in 1792. 

ARTICLE XII 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, 
at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted 
for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for 
as Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all 
persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for 
as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, 
which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed 
to the seat of the government of the United States, directed 
to the President of the Senate;—The President of the Sen¬ 
ate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then 
be counted ;—The person having the greatest number of 
votes for President shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if no person have such majority, then from the persons 


380 


APPENDIX 


having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list 
of those voted for as President, the House of Representa¬ 
tives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But 
in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, 
the representation from each State having one vote; a quor¬ 
um for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the 
States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of 
Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the 
right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth 
day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall 
act as President, as in the case of the death or other con¬ 
stitutional disability of the President. 

The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- 
President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a 
majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if 
no person have a majority, than from the two highest num¬ 
bers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; 
a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the 
whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole 
number shall be necessary to a choice. 

But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the 
United States. 

This amendment was adopted in 1803. 

ARTICLE XIII 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall 
have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Power to enforce prohibition. Congress shall 
have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

The thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments fvere 
the result of the Civil War. They were intended to free and 
protect the slaves. 


APPENDIX 


381 


ARTICLE XIV 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens 
of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. 
N/o State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge 
the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; 
nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or 
property, without due process of law; nor deny to any per¬ 
son within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the 
several States according to their respective numbers, count¬ 
ing the whole number of persons in each State, excluding 
Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any 
election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, Representatives in Con¬ 
gress, the executive and judicial _officers of a State, or the 
members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the 
male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of 
age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way 
abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced 
in the proportion which the number of such male citizens 
shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
years of age in such State. 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative 
in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or 
hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, 
or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, 
as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an 
executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the 
Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in 
insurrection or rebellion against the same or given aid or 
comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a 
vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United 
States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for pay- 


382 


APPENDIX 


ment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing 
insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But 
neither the United States nor any State shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection 
or rebellion against the United States or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obli¬ 
gations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by 
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV 

Section 1. The right of the citizens of the United States 
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States 
or by any State, on account of race, color or previous con¬ 
dition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes 
on incomes, from whatever source derived, without appor¬ 
tionment among the several States, and without regard to 
any census or enumeration. 

This amendment was ratified in 1913. 

ARTICLE XVII 

See section 3 of Art. 1. 

ARTICLE XVIII 

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this 
article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxi¬ 
cating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the 
exportation thereof from the United States and all territory 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes 
is hereby prohibited. 

Sec. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have 
concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 


APPENDIX 


383 


Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall 
have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by 
the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the 
Constitution, within seven years from the date of the sub¬ 
mission hereof to the States by Congress. 

This amendment was ratified January 29, 1919. 

ARTICLE XIX 

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any 
State on account of sex. 

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap¬ 
propriate legislation. 

This amendment was ratified August 26, 1920, 






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WHERE TO WRITE FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION 


ORGANIZATIONS 

American Association for Labor Legislation, 131 East 
23d St., New York City. 

The American City, 93 Nassau St., New York City. 

American Civic Association, 913 Union Trust Building, 
Washington, D. C. 

American Federation of Labor, 801-809 G Street, N. W., 
Washington, D. C. 

American Highway Association, Colorado Building, 
Washington, D. C. 

American Home Economics Association, Station N., 
Baltimore, Md. 

American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St,, 
Chicago, Ill. 

American National Red Cross, 1624 H St., Washington, 

D. C. 

American Peace Society, 31 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 

American Prison Association, Secretary Commissioner 
of Charities and Corrections, Trenton, N. J. 

American Public Health Association, 755 Boylston St., 
Boston, Mass. 

National American Woman Suffrage Association, 505 
Fifth Ave., New York City. 

National Association of Manufacturers, 30 Church St., 
New York City. 

National Association, Opposed to Woman Suffrage, 37 
W. 39th St., New York City. 

National Civil Service Reform League, 79 Wall St., New 
York City. 


385 



386 


WHERE TO WRITE 


National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 315 
Plymouth Court, Chicago, Ill. 

National Conference on City Planning, 19 Congress St., 
Boston, Mass. 

National Conservation Congress, Riggs Building, Wash¬ 
ington, D. C. 

National Education Association, D. W. Springer, Secy., 
Ann Arbor, Mich. 

National Housing Association, 105 East 22d St., New York 
City. 

National Municipal League, North American Building, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 

National Security League, 31 Pine St., New York City. 

National Short Ballot Organization, 383 Fourth Ave., 
New York City. 

National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu¬ 
cation, 140 West 42d St., New York City. 

National Tax Association, 15 Dey St., New York City. 

Pan-American Union, Washington, D. C. 

Playgrounds Association of America, 1 Madison Ave., 
New York City. 

Proportional Representation League, Secretary, Haver- 
ford, Pa. 

Russell Sage Foundation, 105 East 22d St., New York 
City. 

Single Tax Association, 150 Nassau St., New York City. 

PUBLIC OFFICERS 

U. S. Officers, Departments, Bureaus and Commissions, 
Washington, D. C. 

State Officers, Boards and Commissions, State Capital. 

County Officers, County Seat. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



t 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


American Highway Association 

Official Good Roads Year Book of the United States. 
(Annual.) 

Bailey, Liberty Hyde 

Country-Life Movement in the United States. 220p, 
N. Y., Macmillan, 1911. (Rural Outlook Set.) 
Baldwin, Simeon E. 

American Judiciary. 403p. N. Y., Century, 1905. 
(American State Series.) 

Beard, Charles A. 

American Government and Politics. New and rey. ed. 
788p. N. Y., Macmillan, 1915. 

Benson, O. H. and George Herbert Betts 

Agriculture; a text for the school and the farm. New 
enl. ed. 494p. Bobbs, 1915. 

Betts, George Herbert and Otis Earle Hall 

Better Rural Schools. 512p. illus. Indianapolis, Bobbs, 
1914. 

Bryce, James 

American Commonwealth. 2v. New ed., rev. and enl. 
N. Y., Macmillan, 1911. 

Commons, John R. 

Proportional Representation; second edition with chap¬ 
ters on the initiative, the referendum and primary 
elections. 369p. N. Y., Macmillan, 1907. 

Coulter, John Lee. 

Cooperation among Farmers. 281p. N. Y., Sturgis, 
1914. (Farmer’s Practical Library.) 

Davis, Philip, ed. 

Field of Social Service. 430p. illus. Boston, Small, 
1915. 


389 



390 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Debaters’ Handbook Series, pub. by H. W. Wilson Co., 
White Plains, N. Y. 

Capital Punishment; by C. E. Fanning. Ed. 2, rev. 
239p. 1913. 

Commission Plan of City Government; by E. C. Rob¬ 
bins. Ed. 3, rev. and enl. 180p. 1912. 

Compulsory Insurance; by E. D. Bullock. 266p. 1912. 
Direct Primaries; by C. E. Fanning. Ed. 3, rev. and 
enl. 145p. 1911. 

Immigration; by M. K. Reely. 315p. 

Income Tax; by E.’M. Phelps. Ed. 2, rev. and enl. 

147p. 1911. 

Initiative and Referendum; by E. M. Phelps. Ed. 3, 
rev. and enl. 209p. 1914. 

Monroe Doctrine; by E. M. Phelps. 253p. 1915. 
Mothers* Pension; by E. D. Bullock. 188p. 1915. 
Municipal Ownership; by J. E. Morgan and E. D. Bul¬ 
lock. Ed. 2, rev. and enl. 248p. 1914. 

Recall, Including Recall of Judges and Judicial De¬ 
cisions; by E. M. Phelps. Ed. 2, rev. and enl. 273p. 
1915. 

Single Tax; by E. D. Bullock. 199p. 1915. 

Woman Suffrage; by E. M. Phelps. Ed. 2, rev. 162p. 
1910. 

Dewey, John and Evelyn Dewey 

Schools of Tomorrow; 316p. illus. N. Y., Dutton, 1915. 

Farwell, Parris T. 

Village Improvement. 362p. illus. N. Y., Sturgis, 1913. 
(Farmer’s Practical Library.) 

Fillebrown, Charles Bowdoin. 

A. B. C. of Taxation. Ed. 2, 236p. Doiibleday, 1909. 

Finley, John H. and John F. Sanderson. 

American Executive and Executive Methods. 352p. 
N. Y., Century, 1908. (American State Series.) 

Godfrey, Hollis. 

Health of the City. 372p. Boston, Houghton. 1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


391 


Harris, Henry F. 

Health on the Farm; a manual of rural sanitation and 
hygiene, 306p. N. Y., Sturgis, 1911. (Farmer’s 
Practical Library.) 

Haskin, Frederick J. 

American Government. 386p. illus. N. Y., Little, 1911. 

Henderson, Charles Richmond, ed. 

Penal and Reformatory Institutions. 345p. N, Y. Char. 
Pub., Com. 1910. (V. 4, Correction and Prevention. 

Russell Sage Foundation.) 

Hoag, Ernest Bryant and Lewis M. Terman 

Health Work in Schools. 321p. Boston, Houghton, 
1914. (Riverside text-books in education.) 

Howe, Frederic C. 

Modern City and Some of Its Problems. 390p. N. Y., 
Scribner, 1915. 

Lapp, John A. and Carl Henry Mote 

Learning to Earn; a plea and a plan for vocational edu¬ 
cation. 421p. Bobbs, 1915. 

McCall, Samuel W. 

Business of Congress. 215p. N. Y., Columbia Univer¬ 
sity Press, 1911. (Columbia University lectures.) 

McVey, Frank L. 

Making^ of a Town. 221p. Chicago, McClurg, 1913. 

Munro, William Bennett, ed. 

Initiative, Referendum and Recall. 365p. N. Y., Ap¬ 
pleton, 1912. (Municipal League Series.) 

Page, Logan Waller 

Roads, Paths and Bridges. 263p. N. Y., Sturgis, 1912. 
(Farmer’s Practical Library, ed. by Ernest Inger- 
soll.) 

Plehn, Carl C. 

Government Finance in the United States. 166p. Chi¬ 
cago, McClurg, 1915. (National Social Science Se¬ 
ries.) 

Ray, P. Orman. 

Introduction to Political Parties and Practical Politics. 
493p. N. Y., Scribner, 1913. 


392 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Reinsch, Paul S. 

American Legislatures and Legislative Methods. 337p. 
N. Y., Century, 1907. (American State Series.) 

Robinson, Charles Mulford 

Improvement of Towns and Cities; or the practical basis 
of civic sesthetics. Ed. 4, rev. N. Y., Putnam, 1901. 

Ryan, Oswald 

Municipal Freedom; a study of the commission govern¬ 
ment. 233p. N. Y., Doubleday, 1915. (American 
Series.) 

Seager, Henry Rogers. 

Social Insurance; a program of social reform. 176p. 
N. Y., Macmillan, 1910. (American Social Progress 
Series.) 

Smith, Adam 

Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of 
Nations. Various Editions. 

Spalding, Frederick P. 

• Text-hook on Roads and Pavements. Ed. 4, rev. and 
enl. 408p. N. Y., Wiley, 1912. 

Sullivan, James W. 

Markets for the People;.. ihQ consumer’s part. 316p. 
N. Y., Macmillan, 1913. 

Warner, Amos G. 

American Charities. Rev. ed. 510p. N. Y., Crowell, 
1908. (Library of Economics and Politics.) 

Waugh, Frank A. 

Rural Improvement; the principles of civic art applied 
to rural conditions, including village improvement 
and the betterment of the open country. 265p. illus. 
N. Y., Judd, 1914. 

Woodburn, James Albert 

Political Parties and Problems in the United States; a 
sketch of American party history and of the devel¬ 
opment and operation of party machinery, together 
with a consideration of certain party problems in 
their relation to political morality. Ed. 2, rev. and 
enl. 487p. N. Y., Putnam, 1914. 



INDEX 




INDEX 


Accidents: 


Factories, 

31 

Highways, 

28 

Streets, 

29 

Trains, 

32 

Accounts, State Board 

of, 351 

Agriculture: 

Investigation, 

103 

Secretary of. 

337, 338 

State Board of. 

350 

Agricultural Facts, 

173 

Alaska, 

300 

Ambassadors: 

Appointment, 

299 

Homes, 

299, 300 

And Ministers, 

295, 296 

Animal Diseases, 

127 

Appeals to Higher Court, 

264, 265 

Arbitration: 

International, 

296 

Labor Disputes, 

162 

Army: 

25 

Organization, 

294 

Art, 

21 

Assessor: 

County, 

356 

Township, 

358 

Attorney-General: 

State, 

345 

U. S., 

334, 335 

Auditor: 

County, 

354 

State, 

345, 346 

Banking: 

33, 34 

Department, 

347 

Bill-boards, 

114 

Bills: 

Legislative, 

228, 229 

Introduction, 

229 

Birth Records, 

172 

Blue Sky Companies, 

34, 35 

Bonds, 

322, 324 

Bridges, 

14 

Budget, 

324 

Buildings, Height of. 

114 

Business: 

Control of. 

156 

Tax, 

318 


Business Manager Government, 

244, 245 


Cabinet, 

332, 333 

Canal Zone, 

310, 311 

Canals, 

15 

Canvas of Votes, 

187 

Capital and Labor, 

160 

Capital Punishment, 

278 

Census: 


Apportionment of 

Repre- 

sentatives. 

175 

U. S., 

175 

Charities: 

21, 134, 145 

Temporary Help, 

130, 131 

Charities and Corrections, 

Board of. 

348 

Children, Care and 

Pro- 

tection. 

135. 138 

Children’s Care, Research, 103 

Cities: 

19 

Growth, 

107. 108 

Form of Government, 244, 245 

City: 


Beautiful, 

113 

Charter, 

61 

Problems, 

107, 122 

City Councils: 


Apportionment, 

218 

Powers, 

217 

And Commissions. 216,217. 223 

City Planning; 

108, 113 

Railroads, 

111, 112 

Washington, 

108, 109 

Civil Liberty, 

45 

Civil Procedure, 

263-269 

Civil Service; 

192, 201 

Commission, 

341 

Eligible List, 

196, 197 

Examination, 

195, 196 

Civil Service Reform 

: 194, 195 

Advantages of. 

198 

Clerk of the Court, 

354 


Clothing, 4 

Collective Bargaining, 160, 161 
Commerce, Secretary of, 338, 339 
Commercial Problems, 

Research, 104 

Commission Form of 

Government, 244 

Committees: 

Congress, 234 

Legislative, 228, 229 

Party, 184 


395 



396 


INDEX 


Common Needs, 

13, 

23 

Common Protection, 

24, 

37 

Comptroller—State, 

345, 

346 

Congress: 

210 , 

211 

Apportionment of Rep- 


resentatives. 


211 

Powers, 


212 

Procedure, 


233' 

; Session, 

Conservation: 

211 , 

212 

145, 

155 

Governor’s Conference, 



145, 

147 

Commission, 


349 

Constable, 

Constitution: 


358 

U. S.,, 

364, 

376 

Amendments, 

377, 

382 

Making, 

60, 

43 

Constitutions: 

State, 

61 


61 

U. S., 


61 

Consuls, 


296 

Convention System, 

180, 

181 

Cooperation, Agricultural, 

129 

Coroner, 


355 

Corporations, 

Corrupt Practises, " 

34, 

35 

185 

.Cost of Government, 


313 

Counties, 218, 245, 

246, 

353 

County Board, 


353 

Country, Desertion, 

123, 

124 

Country Problems: 

123, 

133 

■ Better Agriculture, 

124, 

125 

Courts: 

252, 

276 

: Appeal, , , 

256, 

257 

Circuit, 

255; 

.256 

; City, - 

254, 

>55 

; Costs, 


266 

County, 

255, 

.256 

.! Enforcement of Results, 


f 

266, 

267 

< Juvenile, 


256 

Procedure of U. S., 

268, 

269 

Powers of U. S., 

267, 

268 

Purpose, 


262 

U. S. 

257, 

258 

U. S. Circuit, 


258 

U. S. Claims, 


259 

U. S. Customs, s 

.259, 

260 

U. S. District, 

* < ” 

258 

U. S. Special, 

» 

259 

U. S. Supreme, 

'.258,^ 

259 

Kinds of, 

’252, 

253 

Criminal Procedure, * 

269, 

276 

Criminals, Rights, 

272 

Death Rate, Decrease, 


86 

Death Records, 


172 

Declaration of Independ- 


ence. 

359, 

363 

Deeds: 



Records, 


169 

Registration of, 


354 


Defectives, Record of, 173 

Direct Primary. 180, 182 

Disease Prevention, 27 

^District of Columbia, 310 

Division of Government 
' Work, 59, 60 

Division of Dabor, 1 

Double Election, 188 

Drainage, 18 


Education: 8 , 20, 91, 106 

Agricultural, 101 

City Schools, 99 

County Supt. of, 99, 100, 355 

Elementary 93, 94 

Extension and Corre¬ 
spondence, 97 

Higher, 95 

Local Offices, 100 

Management, 98, 100 

Part-time Schools, 96, 97 

Purposes of, 92, 93 

State Board of, 99,’351, 352 

Support of, 100 

The Nation’s Part, 100, 104 

Universal, 93 

Vocational, ■ ' 95 

Election: 


Honest, 186 

Officials, 186 

’’Entomologist, 352 

Equal Rights, , 46 

Equalization, Board of, 356 

Examining Boards, 350 

E:!tecutive Act, - 41 

Executive Department: 

239, 251 

Cities, '■ 243, 244 

^ Counties and Town¬ 
ships, 245, 246 

^^Responsibility, 246, 247 

State, 241, 243 

- U. S., 239, 241 


False Imprisonment, 45 

Federal Reserve Board, 

340, 341 

Federal Trade Commission, 342 
Feeding Stuffs, 126 

Fertilizers, 126 

Filth—Prevention, 79 

Fines, 277, 278 

Fire Loss, 173 

Fire: 

' Marshal, , 347 

Protection’, SO 

Fish and Game: 

' Commission, 349 

Conservation, - 152 

Fly and Mosouito Cam¬ 
paigns, 84 

Food: 2 

Supply, 81 




INDEX 


397 


Foreign Countries, Pro¬ 
tection Against, 24 

Foreign Reiations. 294, 303 
Forests, Conservation, 148, 150 
Fraud, Protection Against, 32 

Frauds, Against Agri¬ 
culture, 126, 127 

Free Speech, 45 

Freedom of Assemblage, 46 


Garbage Removal, 118 

Gerrymandering, 216 

Government: 

Basis of, 38 

Nature of, 38, 48 

Protecting Against, 44, 47 

Three Acts of, 39 

Governor, 343, 344 

Governor’s Veto, 231 

Grand Jury, 270, 271 


Hawaii, 300, 301 

Health: 27 

Country and City, 28 

Protection, 78, 90 

Research, 102 

State Board of, 346 

Health Officer, County, 355 

Health Work: 

Part of City, State and 

Nation 87, 88 

Results, 86, 87 

Highways, See Roads, 


Highway Commissioner, 


348, 

349, 358 

Hospitals: 

85 

For Afflicted, 

138 

Housing, 

115, 116 

Illiterates, 

51 

Immigrants—Foreign, 

51 

Immigration, 

300 

Impeachment, 

204 

Imprisonment, 

278 

Income Tax—Federal, 

316, 317 

Incorporation—Record, 

170 

Indeterminate Sentence 

, 282 

Inheritance Tax, 

319 

Initiative, 

235 

Insect Pests, 

127 

Insurance: 

34 

Accident, 

142 

Old Age, 

142 

Sickness, 

142 

Supt, of. 

347 

Unemployment, 

142 

Interior, Secretary of the, 

335, 336 

Internal Revenue, 

316 

International Law, 
Interstate Commerce , 

298, 299 


Commission, 

339, 340 


Irrigation, 

18 

Irrigation and Drainage. 

Boards of. 

349 

Jails, 

279 

Judicial Act, 

42 

Jury, 

260 

Justice of the Peace, 

255, 358 

Labor: 


Bureau, 

349 

And Capital, 

160 

Secretary of. 

339 

Labor Conditions, 


Regulation, 

163 

Labor Problems, Research. 103 

Land, Conservation, 

151, 152 

Law and Custom, 

221 

Law Making, 

210, 238 

Laws: 


Enforcement, 

239, 251 

Enrolled, 

231 

Need for New, 

221 , 222 

Source of. 

226, 227 

Legislation: 

210, 238 

Faults, 

234, 235 

Manipulation, 

232 

Legislative: 


Act, 

40 

Information, 

227, 228 

Procedure, 

230 

Legislatures: 


Apportionment, 

214, 215 

Committees, 

228 

Powers of, 

214 

State, 213, 214, 

225, 226 

Leisure, 

8 

Liberty, 

7 

Libraries, 21. 97. 98 

Lieutenant-Governor, 

344 

Life Protection, 

24 

Lighting, Street, 

30 

Lobbyists: 

231, 232 

In Congress, 

233, 234 

Local Government: 

55 

Value of, 

59 

Lockups, 

278, 279 

Luxuries, 

6 

Manufacture, Facts, 

174 

Marketing Crops, 

128 

Markets: 

117 

And Transportation, 

129, 130 

Marriage Records, 

172 

Martial Law, 

291 

Medical Inspection of 


Schools, 

83 

Merit System, See Civil 


Service, 


Military Power, 

287, 293 

Milk Supply, 

81 

Minerals, Conservation, 

147, 148 

Minimum Wage, 

164 


398 


INDEX 


Municipal Art, 

114, 115 

Mutual Dependence, 

9, 10 

Money,. 

18 

Monopoly: 


Natural, 

158, 159 

Natural Monopoly Regu- 

lation. 

159 

Ways of. 

156, 159 

Monroe Doctrine, 

297, 298 

Mortgage, Records, 

169 

Nation’s Powers, 

53 

National Guard, 

291 

Naturalization, 

300, 301 

Navy: 

25 

Secretary of the. 

335 

Nomination: 


By a Minority, 

188 

Governor, 

180 

Local Officers, 

187 

President, 

182, 184 

Nuisances, Removal, 

80 

Occupations: 

1 

Diseases, 

84 

In U. S., 

50 

Pardon, 

283 

Pardons, Board of. 

348 

Parks, 

133 

Parole, 

282 

Parties—Political, 

179, 180 

Party Committees, 

184 

Paths and Trails, 

66 

Penal Farms, 

281 

Pensions: 

140, 142 

Government Employees, 


190, 191 

Mothers, 

141 

Police, 

140, 141 

Soldiers and Sailors, 

140 

Teachers, 

141 

People: 


Facts about, 

49 

And Government of 


the U. S., 

49, 63 

Philippines, 

308 

Plant Diseases, 

152 

Platform, Party, 

184 

Playgrounds, 

116, 117 

Police, 

26 

Political Parties, 

179, 180 

Poll Tax, 

319 

Poor, Superintendent 

of, 355 

Porto Rico, 

309 

Post-office, 

17 

Postal Revenues. 

317 

Postmaster-General, 

335 

President, 

331, 332 

Printing Board, 

350 

Prisoners: 


Aid, 

284 

Defective, 

282 

Employment, 

281 


Prisons: 280, 281 

Local, State and Federal, 284 
Probation, 283 

Profit-sharing’, 162 

Property, * 

Proportional Representa¬ 
tion, 188, 189 

Prosecuting Attorney, 355 

Public Library Commission, 352 
Public Service Commission, 

346, 347 

Public Utility Regulation, 

159, 160 


Quarantine, 

82, 83 

Railroad Regulation, 

159, 160 

Railroads: 

15 

In Cities, 

111, 112 

Recall, 

205, 206 

Records: 

167, 176 

Local, 

168 

Private Matters, 

168 

State, 

168 

U. S., 

167 

Recreation, 

21 

Red Cross, 

140 

Referendum, 

235, 236 

Reform Schools, 

279, 280 

Reformatories, 

279, 280 

Regular Army, 

290 

Religious Liberty, 

45 

Removal by Governor, 

206 

Removing Officers and 

Employees, 

202, 209 

Representation, 

39 

Residence Districts, 

117 

Revenue: 

Cities and Towns, 

320 

Counties, 

319, 320 

Federal Government, 

315, *318 

Sources of Government, 

314, 315 

State, 

318, 319 

Township, 

319, 320 

U. S. 1915, 

317 

Roads: 13, 

64, 77 

Brick and Concrete, 

69 

Control and Management, 71 

Development, 

65 

Dirt, 

66, 67 

For Commerce, 

64, 65 

Future Improvement, 

75 

Gravel, 

67, 68 

Importance of. 

64 

Investigation of. 

102 

Kinds of. 

65, 66 

Local Management, 

72 

Macadam, 

68, 69 

National Aid, 

75 

Plan for Control, 

73, 74 

Sand Clay, 

67 

Scienfific Construction, 70 

State Aid, 

72, 73 


INDEX 


399 


Roads and Streets, 

Repair, 70, 71 

Rural and City Population, 49 
Rural Credits, 130, 131 

Rural Problems: 123, 133 

Credits, 130, 131 

Safety Devices, 32 

Sanitary Measures, 83 

Schools, Medical Inspection, 83 


Second Choice, 
Secretary; 

Of Agriculture, 

Of Commerce, 

Of the Interior 
Of Labor, 

Of the Navy, 

Of the Treasury, 
Of War, 

Secretary of State; 
State, 

U. S., 

Seeds, 

Sewage Disposal, 
Shelter, 

Sheriff, 

Single Tax, 

Sinking Funds, 
Smoke, 

Special Assessments, 
Spoils System, 

State: 

Aid, 

Library, 

And Nation, 
Secretary of, U. S., 
States’ Powers, 
Steamships, 

Street: 

Pavements, 

Railways, 

Traffic, 

Streets, 

Strikes, 

Suffrage, 

Superintendent of 
Instruction, 


188 

337, 338 

338, 339 
335, 336 

339 
335 

333 

334 

344, 345 
333 
126, 127 
81, 119 
5 

354 
325 
324 
153, 154 
320 
193 

248 
352 
53 
333 
55 
15 

69, 70 
19 

112, 113 
14 
161 
178, 179 
Public 

346 


Surveyor, County, 355 

Suspended Sentence, 283 

Tariff, 315, 316 

Tax Commission, 347, 348 

Taxation, • 313, 328 

Classification of Property, 325 

Indirect, 317, 318 

Old and New Methods, 

313, 31t 

Progressive, 325 

Reform, 324, 325 

For Schools, 322 

Telegraph and Telephone, 17 
Territories, 303, 312 

Torrens System, 170 

Town : 

Clerk, 357 

Meeting, 357 

Townships, 218, 245, 246, 357 
Transportation; 

Cost, 16 

People’s Interest, 16 

Treasurer; 

County, 354 

State, 345 

Treasury, Secretary of the, 333 

Treaties, 296 

Trial: 

\ Civil Cases, 264 

Criminal, 272, 273 

Fair, 265 

Unconstitutional Laws, 275 

Vaccination, 83 

Vice-President, • 332 

Wants, Variety, 6, 7 

War, Secretary of, 334 

Waste, Disposal, 19 

Water Supply, 81 

Waters, Conservation, 150 

Weeds, 127 

Weights and Measures, 33 

Workmen’s Compensation 

Commission, 349 


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